amarion: 2011

Using Italian
This is a guide to Italian usage for students who have already acquired
the basics of the language and wish to extend their knowledge. Unlike
conventional grammars, it gives special attention to those areas of
vocabulary and grammar which cause most difficulty to English
speakers. Careful consideration is given throughout to questions of
style, register, and politeness which are essential to achieving an
appropriate level of formality or informality in writing and speech.
The book surveys the contemporary linguistic scene and gives ample
space to the new varieties of Italian that are emerging in modern Italy.
The influence of the dialects in shaping the development of Italian is
also acknowledged. Clear, readable and easy to consult via its two
indexes, this is an essential reference for learners seeking access to the
finer nuances of the Italian language.
j. j. kinde r is Associate Professor of Italian at the Department of
European Languages and Studies, University of Western Australia. He
has published widely on the Italian language spoken by migrants and
their children.
v. m. savini is tutor in Italian at the Department of European
Languages and Studies, University of Western Australia. He works as
both a tutor and a translator.
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Using Italian
A guide to contemporary usage
J. J. KINDER and V. M. SAVINI
  
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge  , UK
First published in print format
- ----
- ----
© J. J. Kinder and V. M. Savini 2004
2004
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521485562
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of
relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place
without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
- ---
- ---
- ---
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of s
for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not
guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
paperback
eBook (EBL)
eBook (EBL)
paperback
Contents
Preface and acknowledgments page xvii
Abbreviations xviii
1 Varieties of language 1
1.1 The Italian language today 1
1.2 The dialects 2
1.3 Dialect and language in contemporary Italy 2
1.4 Dialect and Italian in contact 4
1.5 Registers of language 5
1.6 Examples of regional variation: pronunciation 5
1.7 Examples of regional variation: grammar 7
1.8 Examples of register variation: grammar 8
1.9 Examples of regional variation: vocabulary 10
1.10 Extracts illustrating registers of Italian 12
Example of R1 (Sicilian and Northern varieties) 12
Example of R1 (Roman variety) 15
Example of R1 (Tuscan variety) 16
Example of written R1–2: SMS messages 17
Example of spoken R2: Un’agenzia di viaggi 19
Example of spoken R2: TV game show 20
Example of R2–3: magazine editorial 22
Example of R3: written communication from bank
to its customers 24
Example of R3: police report 25
Example of R3: formal letter 27
WORDS AND THEIR MEANINGS
2 Misleading similarities 30
2.1 Similar form – different meaning: False friends 30
2.1.1 ‘Falsi amici’ i 30
2.1.2 ‘Falsi amici’ i i : English (or English looking) words with
different meanings in Italian 39
v
Contents
2.2 Similar form – partly similar meaning: Partial
deceptive cognates 41
2.3 Paronyms with similar meanings 51
2.3.1 Paronyms with similar meanings: a general list 52
2.3.2 Paronyms with similar meanings: misleading “alterati” 66
2.4 Paronyms with different meanings 67
2.5 Verbs with similar stems 70
2.6 Gender paronyms 75
2.6.1 Gender paronyms with similar meanings 75
2.6.2 Gender paronyms with different meanings 79
2.7 Deceptive minimal pairs 83
2.8 Other types of misleading similarities 87
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” 89
4 Complex verbal expressions 158
4.1 Single English verbs corresponding to complex Italian
expressions 158
4.2 Single Italian verbs corresponding to complex English
expressions 160
4.3 Complex Italian expressions corresponding to complex English
expressions 161
4.4 Italian “impersonal” verbs 162
4.5 Verbal expressions with la, ne, ci 164
4.5.1 Idiomatic verbal expressions with la 164
4.5.2 Idiomatic verbal expressions with ne 166
4.5.3 Idiomatic verbal expressions with ci 166
5 Affective suffixes 168
5.1 Diminutive suffixes 169
5.2 Augmentative suffixes 172
5.3 Suffixes for verbs 173
6 Idioms, similes, and proverbs 174
6.1 Idioms 174
6.2 Similes based on adjectives 184
6.3 Similes based on verbs 185
6.4 Other proverbial comparisons 185
6.5 Proverbs 186
7 Personal names 188
7.1 The ancient world: Greece and Rome 189
7.2 The Bible 189
7.2.1 Old Testament 189
7.2.2 New Testament 190
vi
Contents
7.3 The Middle Ages to the twentieth century 190
7.3.1 Non-Italian names 190
7.3.2 Italian names with a Latinized or Anglicized
form in English 191
8 Geographical and astronomical names 192
8.1 Italy: administrative regions 193
8.2 Italy: cities 193
8.3 Continents 196
8.4 Europe: countries and regions 196
8.5 The Americas: countries and regions 199
8.6 Asia: countries and regions 199
8.7 Africa: countries and regions 200
8.8 Oceania: countries and regions 201
8.9 Historical or mythical places 202
8.10 Cities of the world 203
8.11 Rivers of the world 205
8.12 Mountains and volcanoes of the world 205
8.13 Planets, stars, and constellations 206
9 Abbreviations and acronyms 207
9.1 Titles and other frequently used abbreviations 208
9.2 International organizations 212
9.3 Italian non-political organizations 213
9.4 Italian official political organizations,
unions etc. 214
10 Latin expressions and sayings 217
10.1 Latin expressions 217
10.2 Latin proverbs and mottoes 220
11 Grammatical terms 221
11.1 Grammatical terms 221
11.2 Punctuation marks 224
11.3 Other common terms and expressions 225
12 Numerals and telephone conventions 226
12.1 Numerals and mathematical conventions 226
12.1.1 Decimals 226
12.1.2 Mathematical operations 226
12.1.3 Ordinal numbers 226
12.2 Telephone conventions 227
12.2.1 Telephone numbers 227
12.2.2 Telephone alphabet 227
vii
Contents
13 Measurement 229
13.1 Length 230
13.2 Weight 231
13.3 Area 232
13.4 Volume 233
13.5 Capacity (liquid) 233
13.6 Currency 234
13.7 Temperature 234
13.8 Time 235
THE CLAUSE – combining words
14 Gender 239
14.1 Gender and sex 239
14.1.1 Persons 239
14.1.2 Animals 240
14.2 Formation of masculine/feminine pairs 240
14.2.1 Unrelated m-f nouns 241
14.2.2 Related m-f nouns: anomalous m-f
correspondence 242
14.2.3 Related nouns: patterns of m-f correspondence 242
14.3 Gender associated with types of noun 243
14.4 Gender associated with noun ending 245
14.5 Gender of compound nouns 248
14.5.1 Verb + noun 248
14.5.2 Noun + noun 249
14.5.3 Noun + adjective/adjective + noun 250
14.5.4 Other compounds 250
14.6 Homonyms distinguished by gender 252
14.7 Nouns with both masculine and feminine plurals 253
15 Number 256
15.1 Formation of plurals 256
15.2 Plural of compound nouns 258
15.3 Italian plurals which correspond to English singulars 259
15.4 Italian singulars which correspond to English plurals 260
15.5 Number concord 261
16 Pronouns 262
16.1 First- and second-person pronouns 262
16.2 Third-person pronouns 263
16.3 Order of object pronouns 265
16.4 Pronouns and verb 266
16.5 Pronouns of address 268
viii
Contents
17 Comparison 270
17.1 Comparison of inequality 270
17.1.1 Nouns and pronouns 270
17.1.2 Other parts of speech 271
17.1.3 Alternatives to di/che 272
17.2 Comparison of equality 272
17.3 Comparison involving a clause 273
17.4 Superlatives 273
17.5 Irregular comparatives and superlatives 274
18 Word order 276
18.1 Subject and verb 276
18.2 Subject, verb, and object 277
18.3 Verbs, objects, and adverbs 279
18.4 Noun and adjective 280
18.5 Numerals and altro 283
19 Negation 284
19.1 No 284
19.2 Non 285
19.3 Negative pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs 286
19.4 Apparent negatives 288
19.5 Negation of single words 288
19.6 Other negative expressions 289
20 Periphrases 290
20.1 Stare + gerund 290
20.2 Stare a + infinitive, essere dietro a + infinitive 291
20.3 Andare + gerund 291
20.4 Venire + gerund 292
21 Verbs of movement 293
22 Auxiliary verbs in compound tenses 295
22.1 Verbs that always take avere 295
22.2 Verbs that always take essere 296
22.3 Verbs that take either, according to grammatical construction 298
22.4 Verbs that take either, according to meaning 302
22.5 Modal verbs 306
22.6 Pronouns and auxiliaries 307
23 The passive 308
23.1 Passive with venire 308
23.2 Passive with andare 309
ix
Contents
23.3 Passive with rimanere and restare 309
23.4 Expression of the agent 309
23.5 Indirect objects 310
23.6 Other ways of expressing the passive 310
24 Reflexives and impersonals 311
24.1 Direct reflexives 311
24.2 Indirect reflexives 311
24.3 Reciprocal reflexives 312
24.4 Inherent reflexives 312
24.5 The reflexive as marker of the intransitive 313
24.6 The passive reflexive 314
24.7 The impersonal reflexive with transitive verbs 314
24.8 The impersonal reflexive with intransitive verbs 315
24.9 Other impersonal subjects 316
24.10 Impersonal objects 316
THE SENTENCE – combining clauses
25 Italian prepositions 321
25.1 a 321
25.1.1 Basic meanings 321
25.1.2 Expressing time 322
25.1.3 Expressing rate 322
25.1.4 Expressing manner 322
25.1.5 Expressing place 323
25.1.6 Expressing kind 324
25.1.7 Expressing instrument 324
25.1.8 Adverbial idioms with a 324
25.1.9 “Personal” a 325
25.1.10 Complex prepositional expressions with a 325
25.2 attraverso 326
25.2.1 Movement 326
25.2.2 Used as an adverb 326
25.3 con 326
25.3.1 Basic meanings 326
25.3.2 In adverbial phrases 327
25.3.3 Idiomatic expressions with con 327
25.4 contro 327
25.4.1 Before nouns and pronouns 327
25.4.2 Used as adverb 328
25.5 da 328
25.5.1 Basic meanings 328
25.5.2 Expressing time 329
25.5.3 Expressing purpose 329
25.5.4 Expressing characteristics or description 329
x
Contents
25.5.5 da used with parte 330
25.5.6 With a verb in the infinitive 330
25.5.7 Adverbial expressions with da 331
25.6 davanti a, prima di, avanti, di fronte a 331
25.6.1 Basic meanings 331
25.6.2 Used as adverbs 332
25.7 di 332
25.7.1 Basic meanings 332
25.7.2 In expressions of description or origin 333
25.7.3 Expressing time 333
25.7.4 Expressing price and measurement 333
25.7.5 Idiomatic expressions 334
25.7.6 “Grammatical” uses of di 334
25.8 dietro, dopo 335
25.8.1 dietro 335
25.8.2 dopo 335
25.8.3 dopo, dietro, and indietro used as adverbs 335
25.9 fino a, sino a, verso 336
25.10 fuori 336
25.10.1 Used as preposition 336
25.10.2 Used as adverb 337
25.11 in 337
25.11.1 Basic meanings 337
25.11.2 Expressing location or movement 337
25.11.3 Expressing change 338
25.11.4 Expressing time 338
25.11.5 Expressing manner, means, or material 338
25.11.6 Common idioms and expressions involving in 339
25.11.7 In complex prepositional expressions 339
25.12 per 340
25.12.1 Basic meanings 340
25.12.2 Expressing movement 340
25.12.3 Expressing time 340
25.12.4 Expressing purpose 341
25.12.5 Expressing reason or cause 341
25.12.6 In expressions of quantity 341
25.12.7 Common idioms and expressions involving per 341
25.13 sotto 342
25.13.1 Basic meanings 342
25.13.2 Idiomatic expressions with parts of the body 342
25.13.3 Used as an adverb 342
25.14 su, sopra 343
25.14.1 Basic meanings 343
25.14.2 Expressing location or direction 343
25.14.3 Expressing time or number 343
25.14.4 su expressing subject-matter 344
25.14.5 su in idiomatic expressions 344
25.14.6 su and sopra used as adverbs 345
xi
Contents
25.15 tra, fra 345
25.15.1 Basic meanings 345
25.15.2 Expressing time or distance 346
25.15.3 Common idioms and expressions involving
tra, fra 346
26 English prepositions 347
26.1 about 347
26.1.1 In the sense of “concerning” 347
26.1.2 In the sense of “approximately” 347
26.2 above 348
26.3 according to 348
26.4 across 348
26.5 along 348
26.6 among 348
26.7 as 349
26.8 at 349
26.8.1 Expressing place 349
26.8.2 Expressing time 349
26.8.3 In other expressions 350
26.9 because of 350
26.10 before 350
26.10.1 Expressing place 350
26.10.2 Expressing time 350
26.10.3 Expressing order of importance etc. 351
26.11 below 351
26.12 beneath 351
26.13 beyond 351
26.14 by 351
26.14.1 Expressing place 351
26.14.2 Expressing time 352
26.14.3 Expressing measure 352
26.14.4 Expressing means 352
26.14.5 Expressing cause or agent 353
26.14.6 In other expressions 353
26.15 down 353
26.16 during 353
26.17 except (for) 354
26.18 for 354
26.18.1 Expressing benefit 354
26.18.2 Expressing purpose 354
26.18.3 Expressing cause 354
26.18.4 Expressing time 354
26.18.5 Expressing place 355
26.18.6 In other expressions 355
xii
Contents
26.19 from 355
26.19.1 Expressing place 355
26.19.2 Expressing time 356
26.19.3 In other expressions 356
26.20 in 356
26.20.1 Expressing place 356
26.20.2 Expressing time 357
26.20.3 In other expressions 358
26.21 inside 358
26.22 instead of 358
26.23 into 359
26.24 of 359
26.25 off 359
26.26 on 359
26.26.1 Expressing place 359
26.26.2 Expressing time 360
26.26.3 In other expressions 360
26.27 out of 361
26.28 outside 361
26.29 over 362
26.30 past 362
26.31 round 362
26.32 through 362
26.33 to 363
26.33.1 Expressing direction 363
26.33.2 In other expressions 363
26.34 towards 363
26.35 under 364
26.36 until, till 364
26.37 up 364
26.38 with 364
27 Prepositional constructions with verbs
and adjectives 365
27.1 Verbs with no preposition before an infinitive 365
27.1.1 Infinitive as subject of the verb 365
27.1.2 Infinitive as object of the verb 367
27.1.3 Verbs of perception 367
27.1.4 Causative construction 368
27.2 di before an infinitive 368
27.2.1 The subject of certain “impersonal” verbs 368
27.2.2 Verbs of saying, promising, agreeing 369
27.2.3 Verbs of mental states 370
27.2.4 Verbs of feeling, opinion, or will 370
27.2.5 Other verbs 371
27.2.6 Verb + direct object + di + infinitive 371
xiii
Contents
27.2.7 Verb + indirect object + di + infinitive 372
27.2.8 Adjectives + di + infinitive 373
27.3 a before an infinitive 374
27.3.1 Verbs that refer to the beginning, continuing,
or ending of an action 374
27.3.2 Verbs that express movement (literal or
figurative) 374
27.3.3 Verbs that express a mental attitude or disposition
(e.g. state, tendency, or will) 375
27.3.4 Verbs that express being or staying 375
27.3.5 Verb + direct object + a + infinitive 376
27.3.6 Verb + indirect object + a + infinitive 376
27.3.7 Adjectives + a + infinitive 376
27.3.8 a + infinitive in place of a che clause 377
27.4 da before an infinitive 378
27.4.1 After verbs 378
27.4.2 After adjectives or adverbs 379
27.4.3 After nouns 379
27.5 per before an infinitive 379
27.5.1 After verbs 379
27.5.2 After adjectives or adverbs 380
27.5.3 After nouns 380
27.6 con, da, in + article before an infinitive 380
27.6.1 con 380
27.6.2 da 381
27.6.3 in 381
27.7 Prepositional constructions 382
27.7.1 No preposition in Italian: preposition in English 387
27.7.2 Preposition in Italian: no preposition in English 388
27.7.3 Some prepositions which do not correspond
in Italian and English 388
28 Use of tenses 389
28.1 Present tense (faccio, vado) 389
28.2 Future tense (far `o, andr`o) 391
28.3 Future Perfect tense (avr `o fatto, sar `o andato) 392
28.4 Present Conditional tense (farei, andrei) 392
28.5 Conditional Perfect tense (avrei fatto, sarei andato) 393
28.6 Perfect tenses – Passato Prossimo and Passato Remoto 393
28.7 Imperfect and Perfect 394
28.7.1 Imperfect tense: other uses 396
28.8 Pluperfect tense (Trapassato Prossimo – avevo fatto,
ero andato) 396
28.9 Past Anterior tense (Trapassato Remoto – ebbi fatto,
fui andato) 397
28.10 Modals 397
xiv
Contents
29 Sequence of tenses 399
29.1 Sequence of tenses in the indicative 399
29.2 Sequence of tenses in the subjunctive 400
29.2.1 Main verb in the Present or Future 400
29.2.2 Main verb in the Past or Conditional 401
30 The Subjunctive 402
30.1 The Subjunctive in main clauses 403
30.1.1 Wishes 403
30.1.2 Third person imperative 403
30.1.3 Third person exhortations 403
30.1.4 Questions 404
30.2 The Subjunctive in noun clauses 404
30.2.1 With main clauses expressing emotion 404
30.2.2 With main clauses expressing opinion, doubt,
uncertainty, or certainty 405
30.2.3 With main clauses expressing knowing and
understanding 405
30.2.4 Saying 406
30.2.5 Illusion, dream, and pretense 406
30.2.6 With main clauses expressing
wanting 406
30.2.7 Permission and prohibition 407
30.2.8 With impersonal verbs 407
30.2.9 The verb aspettare 409
30.2.10 The position of the noun clause 409
30.2.11 il fatto che 409
30.2.12 come meaning che 409
30.2.13 Modal attraction 410
30.3 Indirect questions 410
30.4 Subordinating conjunctions 410
30.4.1 although, however 410
30.4.2 before 411
30.4.3 in order that, such that 411
30.4.4 unless, except 412
30.4.5 until 412
30.4.6 without 412
30.4.7 provided that 412
30.4.8 in case, in case that 413
30.4.9 when 413
30.4.10 as if 413
30.5 Relative clauses 413
30.5.1 After an indefinite antecedent 413
30.5.2 After a negative or non-existent antecedent 414
30.5.3 After unique and superlative antecedents 414
30.5.4 Expressing a hypothesis 414
xv
Contents
30.5.5 “Modal attraction” 414
30.6 Comparatives 414
30.7 Conditional sentences 415
31 Conditional sentences 416
31.1 Hypothetical conditionals 416
31.1.1 Verb mood and tense 416
31.1.2 Other ways of saying “if” 418
31.2 Factual conditionals 419
32 Subordinate clauses 421
32.1 Explicit subordinate clauses 421
32.1.1 Relative clauses 422
32.2 Implicit subordinate clauses 424
32.2.1 Infinitive 424
32.2.2 Gerund 425
32.2.3 Participles 427
32.2.4 Nominalization 428
32.2.5 Ways of translating words in “-ing” 428
TEXTS AND THEIR STRUCTURE
33 Interjections 433
34 Fillers 439
35 Connector words and expressions 441
Bibliography 443
Italian word index 445
Grammar index 467
xvi
Preface and acknowledgments
This book aims to offer a description of contemporary Italian, suitable for
advanced students as well as teachers and linguists who are interested in the
actual usage of the contemporary language. The authors hope they have
usefully filled a gap in the available descriptions of the Italian language by
providing an account which at every point combines linguistic description
with an indication of the sociolinguistic weight that various ways of
“saying the same thing” actually have in contemporary Italian society.
The book assumes a reasonable knowledge of the basics of Italian
vocabulary and grammar and focusses on a selection of areas which cause
difficulty to English-speaking students and/or which are difficult in
themselves to explain adequately. This selection covers a wide range from
matters of vocabulary to different levels of grammar. Thus the book begins
in chapter 1 with an overview of the uniquely complex linguistic situation
in contemporary Italy and gives a selection of examples of the types of
Italian one may encounter in Italy. This is followed by a number of
chapters, 2 to 13, on “Words and their meanings.” These cover areas
which pose problems for English speakers and include lists and
descriptions of types of words not always covered by traditional
dictionaries and grammars. The next chapters, 14 to 24, deal with “The
clause – combining words” and describe matters of morphology such as
gender and number and some matters often not adequately dealt with in
many grammars, such as word order and the choice of auxiliary verbs. The
next group of chapters, 25 to 32, is devoted to the next level of grammar,
that of “The sentence – combining clauses,” and addresses some
difficulties in the use of verbs and sentence construction. The final three
chapters, 33 to 35, move to the level of “Texts and their structure” and
look at various ways of combining sentences and paragraphs into coherent
and effective written or spoken texts.
We have attempted to follow closely the companion volumes in this
series, Using French and Using Spanish, even to the point of using the same
examples where possible. In this way, we hope that those interested in
studying more than one of the principal Romance languages will find
these volumes useful for comparison and contrast.
We are grateful to our colleagues and students in the Department of
Italian at the University of Western Australia for answering our frequent
questions, reading sections of the manuscript, and making several useful
suggestions.
JJK
VS
xvii
Abbreviations
Common abbreviations
adj adjective
adv adverb
Aus Australian English
aux auxiliary
do direct object
esp especially
f feminine
fig figurative(ly)
gen general(ly)
indic indicative
inf infinitive
intr intransitive
inv invariable
io indirect object
lit literally
m masculine
n noun
O object
pl plural
qc qualcosa
qu qualcuno
S subject
s singular
sb somebody
sth something
subj subjunctive
tr transitive
UK United Kingdom (English)
US United States (English)
usu usually
V verb
xviii
Abbreviations
Other abbreviations
abstr. abstract
art. article
ch. chapter
chem. chemical term
comm. commercial term
comp. computer related term
conj. conjunction
econ. economic term
gram. grammatical term
idiom. idiomatic
interj. interjection
Lat. Latin
leg. legal term
math. mathematical term
mech. mechanical term
med. medical term
milit. military term
mus. musical term
p.p. past participle
pres. present
pres. p. present participle
refl. reflexive
xix

1 Varieties of language
1.1 The Italian language today
Italian is the official language of the Republic of Italy. It is spoken by the
58 million inhabitants of Italy and in the Canton Ticino area of
Switzerland, as well as by many millions of Italian migrants and their
descendants in many parts of the world, especially Europe, North and
South America, and Australia. The Italian language has a fascinating and in
many ways unique history, which reflects the political and cultural history
of Italy. The Italian language was based, during the Renaissance, on an
idealized version of fourteenth-century Florentine. Because of the political
fragmentation which beset Italy up to the Risorgimento, however, this
“language” was predominantly used in writing, while for everyday speech
the usual form of communication remained the local dialects. This was
true, with exceptions of course, for all parts of Italy and for all social
classes. Since political unification in 1861, the language has become
universally adopted, and in the process has adapted rapidly to the demands
of a modern, diversified society.
The Italian standard is therefore a modified version of
fourteenth-century Florentine dialect. This standard is found in good
dictionaries and is taught to classical actors and to newsreaders on national
television. However, the Italian spoken and, to a lesser extent, written in
most everyday situations differs from this standard in various ways.
Furthermore, all Italians show their regional origin by their accent. A
regional accent is not, in itself, indicative of register or of the social
characteristics of the speaker, though local accents are usually stronger in
informal speech than in formal uses of language. Furthermore, Italian, like
all languages, is spoken and also written in different ways, not only
according to where the speaker comes from, but also according to his/her
educational, professional and cultural background, what the speaker is
doing, what s/he is talking about, and so on.
1
1 Varieties of language
1.2 The dialects
An essential, ever-present feature of the Italian linguistic landscape is
dialect. The word “dialect” in English describes a regional variety of the
standard language, the way English is spoken in a particular place, e.g. the
“Midlands dialect” (UK), the “mid-West dialect” (USA). In Italian the
word has a quite different meaning. The Italian dialects (or “dialects of
Italy”) are actually separate languages, geographically distributed
throughout the country, which may differ from one another so much
that they can be mutually unintelligible if they are from non-adjacent areas.
Italian is a Romance language, like Portuguese, Spanish, French, and
Romanian. The Romance languages are so called because they are all
derived from Latin, the language of ancient Rome and the Roman
Empire. Over time, Latin developed into new forms in many different
parts of the former Empire: these were referred to as the “vernacular” and
correspond to what we now call “dialects.” At some stage, in each
Romance area, one vernacular eventually emerged as the official
“language” of the nation: in Italy, this vernacular was Florentine. The
selection of one vernacular as “language” meant that the other
vernaculars then assumed the label and status of “dialects.” Thus the
dialects are derived from Latin, as Italian is, and are more or less closely
related to Italian; but they are distinct languages, not varieties of Italian.
The dialects of Italy fall into three main geographical areas, divided by
two “lines”: the La Spezia–Rimini line divides North from Center, and
the Rome–Ancona line divides Center from South (see map on p. 3). In
the North, the Gallo-Italic group covers all regions except the Veneto and
Friuli–Venezia Giulia. In the South, Sicily and the southern tips of
Calabria and Puglia (Apulia) form a separate sub-group. Friulian and
Sardinian are often referred to as “minor (or minority) languages,” in
recognition of their very significant differences from Italian, and their
historical status as languages of their respective regions.
1.3 Dialect and language in contemporary Italy
At the time of Unification in 1861, almost all inhabitants of Italy spoke a
dialect as their native language, while Italian was restricted to a small
section of the population. Estimates of how many Italians knew Italian in
1860 vary from 2.5% to 12% of the population, so that approximately nine
out of ten Italians were monolingual in their dialect. Progress in the spread
of Italian was slow until the second half of the twentieth century. Recent
surveys show that around 7 per cent of the population claim to be still
dialect-only speakers and around 30 per cent claim to speak only Italian.
At least 60% of the Italian population uses both Italian and a dialect on a
regular basis.
Dialects are used more within the home than outside, more in informal
situations than in formal ones, and more in the Northeast, the South, and
2
1.3 Dialect and language in contemporary Italy
Friulian
Venetian
Gallo-Italic
Central
Central-Southern
Sardinian
Extreme Southern
Rome−Ancona
line
La Spezia−Rimini
line
Italian dialects
3
1 Varieties of language
the Islands than in the Northwest and the Center. Older people use them
more than younger people, and men more than women. Furthermore,
dialects are used more among the lower classes, by people with lower
levels of education but also, interestingly, by graduates more than by
people with high school diplomas. They are used more in rural areas and
in smaller towns than in large towns. Besides everyday communication,
they are used in other areas, e.g. literature and music.
1.4 Dialect and Italian in contact
The large numbers of people who regularly use both their dialect and
Italian mean that we should classify Italy as a multilingual nation. This also
means that the distinguishing line between the dialects and Italian is in
many cases becoming increasingly blurred, and this in two ways. First, in
everyday conversation, linguistic forms from dialect and Italian are often
mixed, for different reasons and to achieve different effects. Secondly,
both Italian and the dialects are being affected by their constant use by
bilingual speakers. The dialects are absorbing massive influence from
Italian, in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. But Italian, too, shows
the results of this mixed use, as sounds, grammatical features, words, and
expressions from the local dialect become accepted in the Italian of that
locality. If it is true that the dialects in their traditional form are slowly
dying, it is equally true that they are leaving their trace in the strongly
marked regional varieties of Italian which draw so much from the dialect
tradition.
The following passage, while it is invented, shows how dynamic and
expressive can be the mixture of Italian (in formal and informal registers),
dialects, and intermediate forms. The first speaker is a Calabrian husband,
the other is his Venetian wife.
“Le libert`a non vengono date. Si prendono. kropotkin!”
“Ah, che disgrassia! Tase, te digo! Tu vuoi precipitar questa
casa nel baratro dell’ignominia e del disonor! Tu vuoi strascinar
questa famiglia nel fango!”
“Ma quale fango, Nuruzza mia? Lu fangu sta sulle mani
bianche del proprietario e del banchiere! Lu fangu `e la putrida
societ`a! Anarchia non `e fango!! Anarchia `e onore de lumundu,
nome santo, vero suli della nuova storia, rivoluzione immensa,
implacabbile!!”
(Elsa Morante, La Storia, Turin: Einaudi, 1974)
disgrassia: disgrazia, pronounced with a Venetian accent. The Venetian
dialect word is desgrassia, and this similarity acts as a trigger for the
subsequent switch to dialect.
Tase, te digo: Taci, ti dico, Venetian dialect.
Tu vuoi precipitar questa casa nel baratro dell’ignominia e del
disonor: This is Italian. The dropping of the -e off precipitare and
disonore adds a lofty, almost poetic, tone. The metaphorical use of
baratro is decidedly recherch´e.
4
1.6 Regional variation: pronunciation
Nuruzza: An affectionate form of Nora, with a typically Calabrian
suffix. The Italian equivalent would be Noruccia.
Lu fangu: il fango, Calabrian dialect.
lu mundu: il mondo, Calabrian dialect.
suli: sole, Calabrian dialect.
implacabbile: implacabile, a high register word, pronounced with the
double b typical of Southern accents in Italian.
1.5 Registers of language
Italian linguists have distinguished several different registers of language,
but for the purposes of this book it is more important to identify the
major registers of Italian as they occur in Italy today.
R1 The most casual register of everyday speech. It shows the greatest
evidence of regional origin, including features from the local dialect
(sounds, words, and grammatical features). It includes many features
considered ungrammatical in contexts which require R3. Many of the
features of italiano popolare occur in R1.
R1∗ words and expressions are those generally considered vulgar or
“taboo.” Non-native speakers should exercise caution in using them. We
make no apology for including these terms – they are among the most
frequent in colloquial Italian, and must be understood!
R2 This register will show regional origin in pronunciation but less so in
grammar and vocabulary. It is a truly intermediate register, which in a
sense is best understood negatively: it lacks the dialect influences and very
casual style of R1, but also lacks the formality of R3. On the other hand,
R2 is more flexible and is acceptable in a very wide range of contexts, in
both speech and writing. This corresponds to what has been called
“l’italiano dell’uso medio” or “l’italiano neostandard.”
R3 The written standard language, as it is taught in schools and used in
good-quality newspapers. R3 includes bureaucratic, literary, archaic,
and highly ritualized formal uses of language. Many sub-registers have
been identified, corresponding to various domains of professional
and social activity, e.g. journalism, business, science, law, academia, etc.
1.6 Examples of regional variation: pronunciation
As far as possible, spoken regional or R1 forms are given below in an
adapted version of standard Italian spelling, rather than in phonetic
transcription. This is merely for the sake of convenience; such spellings
will not normally be encountered. Some of these spellings are used by
authors to give a local feel to direct speech. (See the extract from Morante,
La Storia, above.)
The following pronunciations are found almost universally in the areas
indicated, irrespective of register:
5
1 Varieties of language
Area Regional Standard
NORTH double consonants are
not fully pronounced
capelo cappello
no syntactic doubling a casa [a kaza], da me
[da mε]
a casa [a kkasa], da
me [da mme]
-n pronounced as -ng
after vowel
non `e vero [noŋ ε
vero]
non `e vero [non ε
vvero]
-sci- pronounced as -si- lasia lascia
soft c pronounced as ts tsao ciao
s pronounced as z
between vowels
casa, caso [kaza kazo] casa, caso [kasa kazo]
z- pronounced as dzat
beginning of words
zio [dzio] zio [tsio]
different
pronunciation of open
and closed e
bene, questo, perch´e
[bene kwεsto perkε]
bene, questo, perch´e
[bεne kwesto perke]
CENTER p, t, k pronounced
with breath, between
vowels
la pesca, parlato, la
casa [la θεska parlao
la hasa]
la pesca, parlato, la
casa [la pεska parlato
la kasa]
soft g pronounced []
between vowels
ragione [raone] ragione [radone]
syntactic doubling in
particular cases
a casa [a kkasa], da
me [da me or da
mme]
a casa [a kkasa], da
me [da mme]
CENTER and
SOUTH
soft c pronounced as sci scinquescento cinquecento
ls pronounced as lts il tsole il sole
ns pronounced as nts intsomma insomma
rs pronounced as rts scartso scarso
SOUTH syntactic doubling in
particular cases
a casa [a kkasa], da
me [da me]
a casa [a kkasa], da
me [da mme]
-p-, -t-, -kpronounced
as -b-, -d-,
-ggabidano
capitano
-mp-, -nc-, ntpronounced
as -mb-,
-ng-, -ndcambo,
angora,
condendo
campo, ancora,
contento
6
1.7 Regional variation: grammar
Area Regional Standard
vowels at end of words
pronounced as [ə]
stazione [stattsionə] stazione [stattsione]
-b- pronounced
double between
vowels
impossibbile impossibile
soft -g- pronounced
double between
vowels
raggione ragione
s pronounced as -sbetween
vowels
casa, caso [kasa kaso] casa, caso [kasa kazo]
SICILY syntactic doubling in
particular cases
a casa [a kkasa], una
riga [una rriga]
a casa [a kkasa], una
riga [una riga]
tr pron as ci, str
pronounced as sci
quacciu, sci-rada
[kwattʃu ʃtʃada]
quattro, strada
only one
pronunciation of e
and o
vene, bene, dove,
nove [vεne bεne dɔve
nɔve]
vene, bene, dove,
nove [vene bεne dove
nɔve]
different
pronunciation of i, u
Sicilia, `e venuto
[s-itʃ-ilja ε vven∧to]
Sicilia, `e venuto
[sitʃilja ε vvenuto]
note:
Syntactic doubling refers to the process of doubling the first consonant at the
beginning of a word, when that word follows certain other words.
Syntactic doubling does not occur in the North. Words which produce
syntactic doubling are:
words ending in an accented vowel (note that the vowel loses its stress in
the process), e.g. perch´e no [perke nnɔ], Ges`u Maria [djesu mmaria]
certain words, usually monosyllables (exactly which words varies from
region to region), e.g.
a casa [a kkasa], come lui [kome llui], che fai? [ke ffai]
This is a feature of speech and is not shown in writing, though writers
may do so in order to convey local color. In certain cases, however, certain
pairs of words have become so established in the language that they are
written as one word, including the syntactic doubling, e.g. soprattutto
or sopra tutto; and the monosyllabic imperatives: dillo, fallo, datti da
fare, stammi bene, etc.
1.7 Examples of regional variation: grammar
These differences are all common in R1. Some also occur frequently in
R2.
7
1 Varieties of language
Area Regional Standard
NORTH no definite article
with certain
possessives
mia mamma, mio
pap`a
la mia mamma, il
mio pap`a
definite article with
names, esp. feminine
la Maria, il Paolo Maria, Paolo
verbal periphrasis sono dietro a fare sto facendo
position of pronouns devi telefonarmi mi devi telefonare,
devi telefonarmi
che with conjunctions quando che, mentre
che
quando, mentre
cosa in questions cosa vuoi? che vuoi?
use of su and gi`u togliere su, prendere
su
togliere, prendere
mica in negatives (non) `e mica vero non `e (affatto) vero
demonstratives plus
adverbs for
emphasis
questa ragazza qui,
quel ragazzo l`ı
questa ragazza, quel
ragazzo
CENTER te used for tu vieni anche te? vieni anche tu?
si used for noi noi si va via noi andiamo via
irregular verbs dassi, stassi dessi, stassi
SOUTH a used with human
direct object
ho visto a Giuseppe ho visto Giuseppe
position of pronouns mi devi telefonare mi devi telefonare,
devi telefonarmi
verbal periphrasis sto a fare sto facendo
verb at end of clause
(Sicily and Sardinia)
siciliano sono sono siciliano
1.8 Examples of register variation: grammar
Many of the following features are avoided where possible in R2, while
some are now commonly used in R2 though they would probably be
avoided in R3 and certainly in writing.
8
1.8 Register variation: grammar
R1 R3
Avoided in R2
suo used for loro i ragazzi e i suoi
amici
i ragazzi e i loro
amici
comparatives il pi`u migliore il migliore
gli used for le (= a lei) gli ho risposto
subito
le ho risposto subito
ci used for gli, le, loro non ci ho detto
niente
non gli / le ho detto
niente
che used for in cui
(dove)
il paese che ti ho
visto
il paese dove ti ho
visto
che used for indirect
relative pronoun
l’uomo che gli ho
telefonato ieri
l’uomo al quale
(a cui, cui) ho
telefonato ieri
Used in R2
repetition of object
pronoun
a me non mi piace a me non piace (or
non mi piace)
a used with direct
object pronoun for
emphasis
a noi chi ci paga? chi paga noi? or noi,
chi ci paga?
gli used for loro gli ho risposto ieri ho risposto loro ieri
or ho loro risposto
ieri (R3 only)
ci used with avere c’ho tanto lavoro ho tanto lavoro
c’`e with plural subject c’`e molte case qui ci sono molte case
qui
che used to link
“main” clauses
aspetta che vengo aspetta: vengo or
aspetta perch´e vengo
che used for in cui
(quando)
il giorno che ti ho
visto
il giorno in cui
(quando) ti ho
visto
che used for quale che vestito mi metto?
che libri leggi?
quale vestito mi
metto? quali libri
leggi?
niente used as
adjective
niente frutta oggi non c’`e frutta oggi
cosa for che cosa cosa c’`e? che cosa c’`e?
9
1 Varieties of language
1.9 Examples of regional variation: vocabulary
The variety of vocabulary items among the Italian dialects is legendary.
As the dialect-speaking population acquired Italian as a second language,
many dialect words entered the regional vocabularies of Italian, usually
undergoing some “Italianization” in the process. A survey carried
out by R¨uegg in 1951 asked 124 persons from 54 provinces what name
they used for 242 different concepts: only one, “strong black coffee
served in a bar,” was given the same name by all informants: espresso.
Such rich geographical variation is still a major feature of spoken
Italian.
This first list contains words and constructions that are widely
recognised as “typical” of Italian as spoken in the North, Center, and
South of Italy. In the cinema, elements such as these, together with a
strong accent, would be enough to characterize a speaker as coming from
one of the three areas of the country.
NORTH CENTER SOUTH
cosa? che? che?
essere (cosa c’`e?) essere (che c’`e?) stare (che ci sta?)
avere (ho fame) avere (ho fame) tenere (tengo fame)
anche (viene anche lei) anche (viene anche
lei)
pure (viene pure lei)
adesso (adesso vengo!) ora (ora vengo!) mo’ (mo’ vengo!)
cosa sei dietro a fare? che stai facendo? che stai a fare?
questo / quello questo / codesto /
quello
questo / quello
neanche, nemmeno,
neppure
neanche, nemmeno,
neppure
manco, nemmanco
prima dianzi prima
molto molto assai
il giorno dopo il giorno dopo il giorno appresso
l’anno prossimo quest’altr’anno l’anno prossimo
Luned`ı dell’Angelo Pasquetta Pasquetta
Different terms for the same object or activity
Simple everyday objects and activities often have several different names in
different parts of Italy. (In Italian they are called geosinonimi.) For example a
coat-hanger is called ometto, stampella, attaccapanni, croce, and appendiabiti in
the North, gruccia and cruccia in the Center, and stanfella, stampella, crocetta,
gruccia, crociera, appendino, croce, and angioletto in the South. The following
list gives a sample of such words in current usage, with only the most
common synonyms given for each area.
10
1.9 Regional variation: vocabulary
NORTH CENTER SOUTH
bad luck
sfiga (R1–1∗) scalogna, scarogna jella
wind-up blind on outside of window
tapparella serranda tapparella, persiana
broad beans (Vicia faba)
fave baccelli fave
chair
sedia seggiola sedia
cheese
formaggio cacio cacio
cloth for use in housework
straccio cencio pezza
daddy
pap`a babbo pap`a
doorkeeper
portinaio portiere portiere
to “dunk,” dip food in liquid
pucciare zuppare, inzuppare azzuppare, inzuppare
godparents at Baptism or Confirmation
padrino e madrina padrino e madrina compare e comare
melon (Cucumis melo)
melone popone mellone
nice
carino bellino caruccio
nun
suora suora monaca
to play hookey
bigiare (la scuola) fare sega, seghino, filone fare Sicilia
shoelaces
lacci stringhe lacci
slap
sberla schiaffo, ceffone sganassone, schiaffo
small object protruding from another object
pirulino pispolino pomello
tramp, vagrant, hobo
barbone mendicante pezzente
watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris)
anguria cocomero melone
wedding ring
vera fede fede, anello
to work
lavorare lavorare faticare
11
1 Varieties of language
Different meanings for the same word
A few words have rather different meanings in different regions. Most of
these are limited to R1.
Meaning Region
babbo father Tuscany
stupid Sicily
gnocco stupid Lazio
easy Emilia
type of pasta Tuscany and now all
Italy
passata hair band Tuscany
tomato sauce North and South
stampella crutch (for walking) Tuscany
coathanger North and South
comare gossip Center, Puglia,
Abruzzo
godmother South
scostumato shameless Center
bad-mannered South
attaccapanni coat-hanger North
coat-hook Center
1.10 Extracts illustrating registers of Italian
Example of R1 (Sicilian and Northern varieties of Italian),
from Mim`ı metallurgico ferito nell’onore (1972), directed
by Lina Wertmuller
The 1970s films of director Lina Wertmuller used local and informal
registers of Italian, and dialect, to great effect. One has the impression of
listening to dialect but in fact the speech is cleverly constructed, with only
well-known dialect words and phrases, easily recognizable throughout
Italy, inserted into Italian spoken with a strong regional accent. The films
also exaggerate cultural stereotypes of various parts of Italy, for satirical
effect. In this extract, Sicilian Mim`ı has moved to Turin to escape the
Mafia and seek work, and Fiore is a Northerner, a left-wing street trader.
fiore Oeuh ma che bello che `e qua. Sembra Hyde Park. Guarda, sembra
proprio un posto di delitti, questo qua. Una roba di quelli l`ı, aspetta,
com’`e che si dice? una roba di di maniaci sessuali. Oh, u`eh, te, ma che
cosa c’hai, da guardarmi cos`ı? Mi fai perfino pa¨ura. U`eh te, c’hai na
faccia che sembri uno che c’ha mal di pancia: c’hai mal di pancia
davvero? Sar`a colpa della birra gelata.
12
1.10 Extracts illustrating registers of Italian
mim`ı No, c`oppa tua i`e.
fiore Mia? di me? e perch´e?
mim`ı Scusami. Scusami ancora, per piacere, per cortesia, compagna,
ti dispiace se ti bacio?
fiore Mah, se lo chiedi per cortesia . . .
(During the kiss Mim`ı becomes aggressive.)
fiore Mah? Aia! Ma no! Vigliacco d’un . . . Mascalzone! Bestia d’un porco!
Che finezza signorile per un ordinario . . . – i terun vegnon gi`o con la
piena a f`a viul´ens: mi tocca anche subire la violenza del terrone, ma
metti! Non ti permettere mica perch´e ti spacco la testa, ma te la spacco.
Prima mi domandi per piacere per cortesia un bacio, e dopo pratichi la
violenza carnale. Ma va’ all’inferno!
mim`ı Ma non fu violenza. Passione fu. Scusami Fiore, ma io fui travolto, io
non potetti assolutissimamente resistere alla tentazione dei sensi. Ma
quale violenza, ma per carit`a! Ma quando mai! Modestamente, con le
femmine, risultai sempre gradito, io. Ma cu tia, cu tia bedda Fiore, `e
diverso, `e diverso, perch´e tu mi piaci come non mi piacque mai
nessuno. E ora, ora non mi puoi rifiutare Fiore, guarda che non mi
puoi pi`u dire di no.
fiore E io ti dico proprio di no. Ma per chi m’hai preso, oh?
mim`ı Mi rifiuti?
fiore Eh!
mim`ı E perch´e? Qualcheduno ti ha raccontato qualche cosa nei miei
confronti?
fiore A me? Ma chi ti credi di essere? Ma chi `e che ti conosce? [. . .] Tanto,
la ragione `e un’altra. Io all’amore ci credo. Per me, l’`e na roba seria.
mim`ı E io ti sembro allegro? Serissimo sono. Io dall’inizio non capiva. Credo
che caddi innamorato di te appena ti vidi.
fiore Te? Io no! Oh bella!
Northern characteristics of Fiore’s speech
Pronunciation Distinctive vowel sound: pa¨ura
closed e pronounced open, e.g. me, te, perch´e pronounced
m`e, t`e, perch`e
All double consonants are pronounced single
Grammar te for tu
Vocabulary oeuh: interjection expressing admiration
u`eh: interjection expressing surprise
terrone, derogatory term for “southerner” (the
corresponding, but less loaded, term for “northerner” is
polentone)
mica, e.g. non ti permettere mica
Dialect i terun vegnon gi `o con la piena a f`a viul´ens = i terroni
vengono gi `u con la piena a fare violenza
l’`e na roba seria = `e una cosa seria
13
1 Varieties of language
Sicilian characteristics of Mim`ı’s speech
Pronunciation Closed o pronounced open, e.g. Fiore, passione, sono
pronounced Fi`ore, passi`one, s`ono
Closed e pronounced open, e.g. femmine, allegro
pronounced f `emmene, all`egro
Unstressed i pronounced in indistinct fashion [ə], e.g. ti,
carit`a, mi pronounced [tə carəta mə]
-sci- for -ci-, e.g. bacio, piacere pronounced bascio,
piascere
Retroflex pronunciation of -tr-, e.g. travolto pronounced
ciavolto
Syntactic doubling throughout, e.g. per piacere
pronounced pe ppiacere, mi rifiuti pronounced me rrefiuti
Grammar Use of passato remoto
Verb at end of sentence for emphasis, e.g. passione fu,
serissimo sono
Vocabulary femmine for donne
Dialect c`oppa tua i`e = `e colpa tua
cu ttia bedda Fiore = con te bella Fiore
capiva = capivo
General characteristics of informal spoken Italian
Pronunciation ’na for una, ’sti for questi
Grammar c’hai, c’ha for hai, ha, pronounced [tʃai tʃa]
Demonstratives plus adverbs for emphasis, e.g. questo qua,
quelli l`ı
Normal word order changed to place important idea at the
end of the sentence, e.g. io all’amore ci credo
Use of subject pronoun at the end of the clause for
emphasis, e.g. risultai sempre gradito, io
Loose linking of clauses, e.g. c’hai na faccia che sembri
uno . . . (R2 = tale che)
So-called ‘cleft sentence’, e.g. chi `e che ti conosce?
(= chi ti conosce?)
Emphatic use of reflexive, e.g. chi ti credi di essere?
Mixture of registers, e.g. Fiore switches to dialect at the
height of her anger i terun vegnon gi `o a f`a viul´ens, then
back to R2 Italian, then uses a higher register (legal)
expression of condemnation pratichi la violenza carnale.
Mim`ı resorts to an exaggerated superlative adverb, typical of
R1: assolutissimamente
Interjections,
fillers, and
connectors
Mah? expresses surprise and disbelief
Aia! expresses pain
ma metti! Come off it!
Ma at beginning of sentences
Guarda!
14
1.10 Extracts illustrating registers of Italian
Example of R1 (Roman variety of Italian) (from A. Sordi,
Ammazza che fusto!, Milan: Rizzoli, 1995)
The actor Alberto Sordi specialized in portraying certain down-and-out
Roman characters, including a fake noble “conte Claro.” This text comes
from a radio show of 1950. While the woman attempts to impress the
“count” with her formal Italian, Sordi’s language slides between standard
Italian (often formulaic and literary, with many sentences in rhyming
couplets), a strongly local Italian variety, and dialect.
sordi Che fai oggi de bono, per il tuo pranzo?
donna Oh! Come il solito . . . Ecco: un po’ di formaggio qui, dal salumiere.
sordi Bono! Formaggio co’ le pere?
donna Questo `e tutto . . . Perch´e ormai conte Claro non si pu`o neppur dire
che io mangi . . . Io pilucco.
sordi A chi lo dici sign´o? So’ er conte Claro e nun resto de stucco. Te lo
confesso, lo voi sap´e? Anch’io pilucco. Ma qualche volta, come se fa?
Quanno ce vo’, ce vo’ un piatto de sostanza! Comprendi
l’importanza?
donna Eh magari conte Claro . . . Ormai ho quasi perso il ricordo di tutto.
sordi Davero? Pure tu? Nun se famo ved´e insieme dalla gente, che sembra
brutto . . . Entramo va . . . Annamose a istru`ı. Rinfrescare i vecchi
ricordi `e sempre un dovere. Entriamo signora, entriamo dal salumiere.
Buongiorno pizzicarolo . . . Pizzica, pizzica, che sei solo.
salumiere Buongiorno, desidera?
donna Oh, il solito: due acciughine e un po’ di mozzarella fresca.
sordi Agguanta pizzicar`o, mettece pure ’sta mezza ventresca. Un po’ de
prosciutto, un po’ de pecorino. Pizzicar`o, aggiungece pure quel
salamino . . . Tanto le cose mo me vanno bene col Presidente
Pella . . . Aho, sai che te dico? Mettece pure ’sta mortadella.
salumiere Altro signore?
sordi E non lo so! Voi altro sign´o?
donna Io? Conte Claro, ma che cosa dice? Chi le ha detto che io voglio
questa roba? Io non voglio niente!
sordi Sta’ zitta signora. Er pizzicarolo ha gi`a incartato tutto; mica p`o
disf `a . . . So’ stato io che ho ordinato, che me voi fa sfigur`a? Andiamo
signora paga tutto e io agguanto er pacco . . . Buongiorno pizzicarolo,
te saluto e batto er tacco.
donna Ma conte Claro io non capisco . . . Perch´e ha voluto che comprassi
tutta questa roba?
sordi Come perch´e, signora mia? M’hai domandato un consiglio e io te lo
sto a d`a . . . Questo `e il metodo e pi `u non domand`a.
Roman characteristics
Most of these features are present in Roman dialect (romanesco) and are also
present in strong versions of the Roman variety of Italian.
15
1 Varieties of language
Pronunciation de, te, se, me for di, ti, si, mi
ce for ci (third person pronoun for inanimate objects and
places), e.g. mettece
Open o not diphthongized, e.g. b`ono, v`oi, vo’, p`o for
buono, vuoi, vuole, pu`o
nun for non
quanno for quando
davero for davvero
Consonant elision: co’, so’ for con, sono
Syllable elision: signo’ for signora, pizzicar `o for pizzicarolo
Syntactic doubling throughout, e.g. ma che cosa dice
pronounced ma cche ccosa dice, che fai oggi de bono
pronounced che ffai oggi de bbono
Grammar se [= si] for ci (1 pl pronoun), e.g. se famo = ci facciamo
Abbreviated infinitives: sfigur`a, sap´e, ved´e for sfigurare,
sapere, vedere
er for il
entramo, annamo for entriamo, andiamo
te lo sto a d`a for te lo sto dando (= te lo sto a dare)
Note that Sordi addresses the woman as signora but uses
the tu form of address.
Vocabulary Typical Roman exclamation: aho!
mo for adesso
pizzicarolo for salumiere (cf. Tuscan pizzicagnolo)
pure for anche
Learned reference, comically out of place: e pi`u non
domand`a
Example of R1 (Tuscan variety of Italian) (from L. Bianciardi, La
vita agra, Milan: Rizzoli, 1962)
This passage includes a constructed but realistic depiction of the variety of
Italian, strongly imbued with dialect, spoken in Central Italy (the example
is from Pisa), where the boundary between Italian and dialect is often far
from clear. The spelling has been invented by the author to give the
flavour of the pronunciation.
Persino a qualche pisano io ho aperto l’uscio di casa – che `e
per proverbio azzardo pericoloso; a qualche pisano di quelli
che dicono gaod´e rpeoro ditup`a, e ogni tanto vengono su col
sorrisino furbo a cercare lavoro. “Nciavresti mia nposticino da
guadagn`a bbene senza lavor`a tanto? Sai om`e, sule cencinquanta
rmese? Gi`u, madonnarbuio, un si batte iodo. Un si trova nalira
peffaccant`a nceo.” E se tu gli domandi cosa vuol fare, cosa sa
fare – qui `e un posto da specializzati, devi presentarti con le
idee chiare e precise, so fare una cosa, quella cosa, e basta – se
tu glielo domandi lui rimane a bocca aperta, spalanca gli occhi,
ti punta l’indice contro: “Maffai la burletta davvero? Gaod´e,
16
1.10 Extracts illustrating registers of Italian
un lo sai osa soff`a io? Un mi onosci? Lo poi domand`a a coso, ome
siama, a coso no? Ir figliolo di Amedeo, quello che mor`ı anno.”
The passages in italics are, in Italian:
Gaod´e al pecoro di tuo padre
Non c’avresti mica un posticino da guadagnare bene senza lavorare tanto?
Sai com’`e, sulle centocinquanta al mese? Gi`u, Madonna al buio!, non si
batte chiodo. Non si trova una lira per far cantare un cieco.
Ma fai la burletta davvero? Gaod´e, non lo sai cosa so fare io? Non mi
conosci? Lo puoi domandare a coso, come si chiama, a coso no? Il figlio di
Amedeo, quello che mor`ı l’anno scorso.
Pronunciation Hard c dropped altogether between two vowels, e.g. ome
siama for come si chiama; but not with syntactic doubling,
e.g. a coso pron acc`oso.
non pronounced un or n
n for un, e.g. nposticino; na for una, e.g. nalira
Syntactic doubling throughout, e.g. guadagn`a bbene,
peffaccant`a, maffai, soff `a
Abbreviated infinitive: guadagn`a, lavor`a, domand`a
Grammar ir for il, e.g. ir figliolo; r for al, e.g. rmese,
Madonnarbuio = Madonna al buio
tu for tuo
Repetition of pronoun referring to object of verb: in this
example the object of the verb is an entire clause, e.g. un lo
sai osa soff `a io
Use of passato remoto
Vocabulary Gaod´e is a distinctive exclamation of Italian as spoken in
Pisa
coso, meaning whatsisname
anno for l’anno scorso
Example of written R1–2: SMS messages
Text or SMS (pronounced essemmesse) messages, which can be sent
from mobile phones or some computers, frequently use a kind of informal
Italian which is very like spoken language. They tend to be short, to save
time and to stay within the limit of 160 characters (on most phones), and
so, like SMS messages in other languages, use abbreviations of various
kinds. This type of Italian is frequently also used in informal email
communication. The following text has been constructed from
documented forms.
A: Ciao Gigi!! dv 6?
B: Ciao amore sono in segreteria di Facolt`a, devo fare liscrizione x il 2o
sem. Te ke fai?
A: Sono in biblio a studiare l’ingl ma ke 2 balls:-( Li come va??
B: Czo sono qui dalle 7 e 30 e ce ancora una fila di 100 persone
aiutooooooo!!!!
A: 80 fame uffa
B: ieri sera dv 6 finita???
17
1 Varieties of language
A: sono rimasta con Franco ke mi ha r8 le balle con la storia dei genitori
ke nn gli danno la casa al mare per il wknd
B: ankio lo visto e lo mandato a fnculo
A: oh ma qd t c metti 6 proprio 3mendo lo sai
B: lo soooo!!! :-)
A: c ved dopo pranzo?
B: nn posso devo andare a casa xke c sono i miei e m dicono se m fanno
part sab o dom
A: OK!!!! voglio sapere subito!?!?!? dimmeloggi pome
B: ti kiamo 4 5
A: vabbe c sent + tardi ciao xxx
B: ciao amore ricorda ke TVTB
This may be deciphered as follows:
A: Ciao Gigi!! Dove sei?
B: Ciao amore, sono in segreteria di Facolt`a, devo fare l’iscrizione per il
secondo semestre. E tu che fai?
A: Sono in biblioteca a studiare l’inglese ma che palle:-( L`ı come va?
B: Cazzo! sono qui dalle 7 e 30 e c’`e ancora una fila di 100 persone. Aiuto!
A: Ho tanta fame, uffa!
B: Ieri sera dove sei finita?
A: Sono rimasta con Franco che mi ha rotto le balle con la storia dei
genitori che non gli danno la casa al mare per il weekend.
B: Anch’io l’ho visto e l’ho mandato affanculo.
A: Oh ma quando ti ci metti sei proprio tremendo, lo sai?
B: Lo so:-)
A: Ci vediamo dopo pranzo?
B: Non posso. Devo andare a casa perch´e ci sono i miei e mi dicono se mi
fanno partire sabato o domenica.
A: OK. Voglio sapere subito. Dimmelo oggi pomeriggio.
B: Ti chiamo alle 4 o alle 5.
A: Vabbe’ ci sentiamo pi`u tardi ciao [baci].
B: Ciao amore, ricorda che ti voglio tanto bene.
Abbreviations Set phrases (as acronyms): TVTB = ti voglio tanto bene
Common words, esp. by deleting vowels: qd = quando,
nn = non, c ved = ci vediamo, c = ci, m = mi
In principle any word can be abbreviated or contracted, if
the sender believes the recipient will understand it, e.g.
wknd; sab, dom, biblio, pome
Words run together: dimmeloggi = dimmelo oggi
Symbols Mathematical symbols with the same sound as words: + =
pi `u, x = per, 6 = sei
Symbols combined with letters: 2o = secondo,
3mendo = tremendo, r8 = rotto, 80 = ho tanta
Punctuation Used more for emphasis and expressing emotion than for
conventional textual uses
18
1.10 Extracts illustrating registers of Italian
Spelling k replaces ch and sometimes any hard c: kiamo =
chiamo, xke = perch´e, kasa = casa
Apostrophes not used: ankio, ce = c’`e, liscrizione
Phonetic spellings if shorter: lo = l’ho
Numbers used in place of words
Interjections ke 2 balls note English word
Cazzo
uffa expresses frustration
Example of spoken R2: Un’agenzia di viaggi
This conversation is more formal, between strangers in a professional
setting. Many of the features already seen in conversation occur here, but
the formal nature of the exchange requires more careful grammar, more
complete sentences and use of circumlocutions and formulae.
cliente Buon giorno.
agente Giorno. Un attimo solo, e sono subito da Lei.
. . .
Ecco, mi dica.
cliente Guardi, volevo delle informazioni sui viaggi organizzati in Australia.
agente S`ı, certo. Ne abbiamo un’ampia variet`a. Mi sa dire in che stagione e
per quante persone?
cliente Per me e mio marito.
agente Bene. E in che stagione dell’anno?
cliente Mah, molti ci hanno consigliato dicembre–gennaio ma c’hanno detto
che laggi`u fa molto caldo e quindi . . .
agente Eh s`ı, effettivamente Natale ricorre nel periodo pi`u caldo dell’anno,
`e piena estate. Comunque, potrebbe essere una esperienza simpatica,
un Natale sotto il sole australiano.
cliente Ma, vede, abbiamo i genitori anziani qui a Pescara e, sa, un po’ ci
dispiace, cos`ı, lasciarli soli proprio a Natale. Piuttosto, mi dica Lei, a
parte Natale, quali sarebbero i periodi pi`u indicati per un viaggio non
troppo lungo?
agente Beh, prima di tutto, bisogna dire che fare un viaggio cos`ı lungo per un
breve soggiorno, non so se sia conveniente. Se ne avete la possibilit`a, vi
consiglierei di fermarvi almeno tre settimane.
cliente Ah s`ı?
agente Beh, sa, il viaggio `e lungo e c’`e una certa spesa.
cliente Beh, s`ı, forse ha ragione. Insomma, ha delle occasioni, dei viaggi
organizzati?
agente Guardi, Le do questo d´epliant. Qui ci sono diverse soluzioni, a seconda
dei vostri gusti, quanto volete fermarvi e quanto, insomma, volete
spendere.
cliente Le dispiace se lo porto a casa per farlo vedere a mio marito?
agente No, assolutamente.
cliente Grazie, molto gentile.
19
1 Varieties of language
agente Ma si immagini. Se lo legga con comodo, e poi mi faccia sapere se
trova qualcosa che La pu`o interessare. Comunque, se avesse bisogno di
ulteriori informazioni, non si faccia problemi, mi chiami quando
vuole: sono a Sua disposizione.
cliente Mille grazie.
agente Grazie a Lei. Buona giornata.
cliente Altrettanto a Lei. Arrivederci.
agente Buon giorno.
Grammar Giorno (or ’giorno) is less formal than buon
giorno and may be an attempt at making the client
feel comfortable
c’hanno detto is less formal than ci hanno
consigliato, and may reveal a certain uncertainty in
the client
Formulaic ‘bureaucratic’ clause: se avesse bisogno
di ulteriori informazioni
Sentence
construction
Signs of unplanned speech: e quindi . . .;
Use of conditional to make polite requests: quali
sarebbero i periodi pi `u indicati?
Vocabulary “Polite” imperfect: volevo = vorrei
Circumlocution: non so se sia conveniente
Vocabulary shared
with R3 and
‘officialese’ in
tone
mi sa dire; ricorre; d´epliant; diverse soluzioni
Interjections, Ecco, guardi, mah, ma, beh, sa, vede, insomma
fillers, and
connectors
Polite formulae Greetings and farewells: Buon giorno, Giorno;
Mi dica
Mille grazie; grazie a Lei; altrettanto a Lei
sono a Sua disposizione; molto gentile; Buona
giornata; Ma si immagini
Example of spoken R2: TV game show (from T. De Mauro
et al., Lessico di frequenza dell’italiano parlato, Rome:
Etaslibri, 1993)
host Allora Armando La Peccierella, piccolo il premio ma enorme la
soddisfazione . . .
contestant soddisfazione, ecco s`ı.
host Abbiamo avuto una battaglia veramente fuori dell’usuale gioved`ı
scorso, quando la nostra grande campionessa in carica `e stata sconfitta.
Pensate, invece di dire “trentasei” o “ventisei” . . .
contestant no “trentaquattro” e “venti-” . . .
host . . . invece di dire “trentaquattro”. . .
20
1.10 Extracts illustrating registers of Italian
contestant No invece di dire “ventiquattro” disse “trentaquattro.”
host . . . ha detto “trentaquattro”. (To viewers) Avete capito? E’ stato un
lapsus e cos`ı questo giovanotto, che era andato addirittura sotto zero,
`e diventato il nostro campione e ha vinto cinquanta milioni, che
comunque `e sempre una bella cifra per un ragazzo . . .
contestant Certo
host . . . cos`ı giovane. (To contestant) Dunque allora c’`e stata grande attesa
gioved`ı scorso a Napoli, quando sapevano che sarebbe venuto a
partecipare al nostro gioco?
contestant Sembrava . . .
host (To viewers) I napoletani, come sapete, sono sempre pieni di
entusiasmo: pensate che hanno tappezzato il suo quartiere con i . . . dei
manifesti che vi voglio far vedere. Guardate un po’, eh! “I Segreti di
Telemike,” (laughs) “I Segreti di Twin Peaks.” E allora quelli che
passavano per le strade di Napoli dicevano “ma cos’`e sta storia?” Hai
capito? Perch´e forse non sapevano che avrebbe giocato con noi. Poi,
pensate, hanno dovuto, nel suo quartiere . . . a casa sua hanno dovuto –
si vede che lui ha un bel terrazzo – hanno messo uno schermo gigante,
ecco. Guardate, un maxischermo e qui ci sono parenti, amici che
applaudivano e facevano il tifo per lui quando ha vinto, perch´e `e stata
una . . . come se avesse vinto il Napoli, ecco. Comunque, fortunato il
nostro campione in carica.
Grammar A variety of tenses is used: present, passato prossimo,
imperfect; also pluperfect, conditional perfect. One case
of the (pluperfect) subjunctive and one of passato remoto
At one point the narrative moves between the present,
referring to the pictures being shown, qui ci sono, and
the imperfect, taking us back to the time of the events,
applaudivano e facevano il tifo
The speakers use the Lei form of address. When the
Host says Hai capito?, he is speaking to the audience
and lapses into a generic tu instead of the usual (and
correct) voi
Sentence
construction
Sentences are short, or are made up of coordinated
clauses. Subordinate clauses are syntactically simple –
relative clauses introduced by che, or simple adverbial
or noun clauses
Formulaic sentences with inversion and no verb:
piccolo il premio ma enorme la soddisfazione;
fortunato il nostro campione in carica
R1 features in reported speech: Ma cos’`e sta storia?
Self-correction con i . . . dei manifesti
Change of
structure
perch´e `e stata una . . . come se avesse vinto il
Napoli
21
1 Varieties of language
Parenthetical
side remarks
si vede che lui ha un bel terrazzo
Vocabulary Vocabulary is simple and neutral
The host’s reference to the contestant as a giovanotto is
familiar and somewhat old-fashioned
Semi-technical
terms
campionessa in carica, maxischermo
Use of generic adjectives before nouns, almost as
clich´es: la nostra grande campionessa, una bella
cifra, un bel terrazzo
The flat tone is lifted by adverbs: veramente,
addirittura
Interjections,
fillers, and
connectors
Dunque, allora, comunque; ecco; guardate,
guardate un po’, pensate; come sapete;
avete capito?, hai capito?
Most sentences begin with a connector. This keeps the
talk flowing and helps the host hold the floor: allora,
e cos`ı, comunque, dunque allora, perch´e, poi,
guardate
Regional
features
When the Southern contestant uses the passato remoto
disse, the Northern host repeats the verb but in the
passato prossimo: ha detto
Example of R2–3: magazine editorial (from Il Mondo,
30 August 2002)
This editorial in an economics weekly aims at a style which combines
specialist knowledge with a chatty, familiar tone.
Gli economisti assicurano che mai il pianeta terra in millenni
di storia ha conosciuto livelli di ricchezza paragonabili a quelli
raggiunti dall’occidente industrializzato nell’ultima met`a del
secolo scorso, quelli della societ`a opulenta descritta da John
Kenneth Galbraith. Societ`a che `e diventata ancor pi`u che opulenta
proprio in tempi recentissimi, fra il 1990 e il 2000. Ve
lo ricordate? E’ stato il decennio d’oro della cosiddetta new
economy, di Internet, delle nuove tecnologie. Ed `e stato il
decennio magico della Borsa: le quotazioni salivano, salivano,
salivano. Sempre. Inutile dilungarsi in ricordi, basta un esempio
di casa nostra: Finmatica, media societ`a specializzata in
software bancario, venne collocata in Borsa a 5 euro; sal`ı fino
a 180. La Borsa creava ricchezza (virtuale) senza sosta.
E ci fu un gruppo di economisti (si fecero chiamare la scuola
del Nuovo Paradigma) che cerc`o di dare fondamento teorico
a quella follia sostenendo che i miglioramenti esponenziali
di produttivit`a legata alle nuove tecnologie avrebbero portato
a tassi di crescita dei profitti delle imprese mai conosciuti
22
1.10 Extracts illustrating registers of Italian
prima. E dunque la Borsa avrebbe continuato a salire creando
ricchezza, tanta ricchezza, per tutti.
Sogni. Si trattava di una bolla speculativa ed `e esplosa. Come
forse sarebbe stato ragionevole aspettarsi. L’esplosione ha creato
e sta creando danni e problemi a non finire, ma soprattutto
ha fatto capire che qualcosa non funziona nel nostro sistema,
nel senso che la corsa all’Eldorado che ha caratterizzato il
decennio del boom ha sovvertito tutte le regole. E’ cronaca
di questi giorni: abbiamo saputo di manager che falsificavano
bilanci pur di far salire le quotazioni delle loro societ`a, di
controllori che non controllavano, avallando le truffe, e via
dicendo. In America l’amministrazione `e gi`a corsa ai ripari
varando una serie di norme per garantire la trasparenza dei
mercati, per difendere i risparmiatori dai manager disonesti,
per fare in modo che ritorni la fiducia. In Italia si `e aperto
un dibattito sul destino del sistema: dopo il crollo del muro
di Berlino e la morte del comunismo – si chiedono alcuni –
non `e che forse `e iniziata anche l’agonia del capitalismo?
Grammar Use of passato remoto for aspects of a time period barely
two years past, to reinforce how much that time has been
left behind
The position of mai at the beginning of its clause, in the
opening sentence, gives an emphatic, almost dramatic,
tone
The indicative in non `e che forse `e, instead of the
more usual subjunctive, gives force to the statement in
the che clause
Omission of articles gives a technical tone: Finmatica,
media societ`a specializzata; falsificavano
bilanci
Sentence
construction
In general, a careful alternation of short and long
sentences
Sentences and clauses without main verbs: Sempre.
Sogni. Inutile dilungarsi in ricordi
Clauses written as if they were complete sentences,
giving the impression they are being thought of on the
spur of the moment, as in speech, e.g.:
Societ`a che `e diventata ancor pi `u che opulenta; Ed
`e stato il decennio magico della Borsa; Come
forse sarebbe stato ragionevole aspettarsi
Some features more typical of R2 (speech):
Repetition: le quotazioni salivano, salivano, salivano
Direct address: Ve lo ricordate?
23
1 Varieties of language
And also R3 features:
A somewhat contrived play on words: controllori che
non controllavano
Vocabulary
Some technical
terms
collocata floated
media societ`a mid-sized company
quotazioni share prices
produttivit`a productivity
tassi di crescita dei
profitti delle imprese
company profit growth
rates
bolla speculativa speculative bubble
bilanci accounts
varando (. . .) norme to pass regulations
risparmiatori savers / investors
General R3
vocabulary
opulenta, miglioramenti esponenziali, dilungarsi,
sovvertire le regole, avallare, trasparenza
Historical la corsa all’Eldorado
allusion
Anglicisms new economy (introduced and hedged by cosiddetta),
software, boom, manager
Expressions di casa nostra
with a more tanta ricchezza (instead of molta)
familiar, R2
tone
Example of R3: written communication from bank to its
customers (from L. Coveri, A. Benucci & P. Diadori, Le varieta`
dell’italiano: manuale di sociolinguistica italiana, Rome,
Bonacci, 1998)
Gentile Cliente,
al fine di risparmiarLe inutili perdite di tempo, qualora debba
effettuare operazioni per un importo uguale o superiore a
Lire 3.000.000 e non intrattenga alcun tipo di rapporto
con la nostra banca (es. conto corrente, deposito a risparmio
ecc.), La informiamo che potremo eseguire le Sue disposizioni
solamente se Ella `emunita di documento di identit`a e di codice
fiscale.
Si porta a conoscenza di tutta la clientela titolare di rapporti
di conto corrente che con le banche indicate in calce, residenti
sulla “piazza,” non viene effettuata la compensazione
giornaliera dei titoli negoziati. Pertanto gli assegni bancari
tratti sugli sportelli di dette banche verranno considerati come
“fuori piazza,” ai soli fini della determinazione dei giorni
trascorsi i quali tali titoli devono intendersi pagati ed a prescindere
dalla causale di versamento applicata all’operazione.
24
1.10 Extracts illustrating registers of Italian
Grammar Preference for nouns over verbs:
non viene effettuata la compensazione giornaliera
dei titoli negoziati for
i titoli negoziati non verranno compensati
ai soli fini della determinazione for solamente per
determinare
Passive viene effettuata, verranno considerati, devono
intendersi pagati
Impersonal form si porta a conoscenza
Ellipsis Adjectives used elliptically for relative clauses:
tutta la clientela titolare di rapporti
Sentence
construction
Main clauses are short and simple, and contain almost
no information; subordinate clauses are long and
complex and carry the information; complex
conjunctions: trascorsi i quali
Vocabulary Formula of respect: Gentile Cliente
Less common
words used in
place of
common ones
effettuare, eseguire for fare
Ella for Lei
`e munita di for ha con s´e
in calce for alla fine della lettera
pertanto for quindi
dette banche for queste banche (or le suddette
banche)
Synonymous Gentile Cliente, La informiamo
expressions Si porta a conoscenza della spettabile clientela
Technical
vocabulary
residenti sulla piazza, titoli, sportelli, “fuori
piazza” (note the inverted commas), causale di
versamento
Example of R3: police report (from I. Calvino, ‘L’antilingua’
(1963), now in I. Calvino, Una pietra sopra, Turin: Einaudi, 1980)
This is a classic parody of how R3 bureaucratic language can be
unnecessarily complex and end up obscuring the meaning rather than
aiding communication. The author identified the main characteristic of
this “antilanguage” as terrore semantico, i.e. avoiding all words that refer
explicitly to concrete reality. The two sections we focus on in the passage
have been marked here as {A} and {B} for ease of reference.
Il brigadiere `e davanti alla macchina da scrivere. L’interrogato,
seduto davanti a lui, risponde alle domande un po’ balbettando,
ma attento a dire tutto quel che ha da dire nel modo
pi`u preciso e senza una parola di troppo:
{A} Stamattina presto andavo in cantina ad accendere la stufa e
ho trovato tutti quei fiaschi di vino dietro la cassa del carbone.
Ne ho preso uno per bermelo a cena. Non ne sapevo niente
che la bottiglieria di sopra era stata scassinata.
25
1 Varieties of language
Impassibile, il brigadiere batte veloce sui tasti la sua fedele
trascrizione:
{B} Il sottoscritto, essendosi recato nelle prime ore antimeridiane
nei locali dello scantinato per eseguire l’avviamento
dell’impianto termico, dichiara d’essere casualmente incorso
nel rinvenimento di un quantitativo di prodotti vinicoli, situati
in posizione retrostante al recipiente adibito al contenimento
del combustibile e di avere effettuato l’asportazione di uno
dei detti articoli nell’intento di consumarlo durante il pasto
pomeridiano, non essendo a conoscenza dell’avvenuta effrazione
dell’esercizio soprastante.
The “original” direct speech (A) is in R2, with one ungrammatical
(R1) construction: non ne sapevo niente che . . . In R2 this would be
non sapevo che . . . , or non (ne) sapevo niente del fatto che la
bottiglieria fosse . . . The reported version (B) is R3.
Grammar The reflexive in bermelo (A) disappears in
consumarlo (B).
Sequence of tenses: the first sentence of A is vague
(andavo . . . ho trovato) B pedantically expresses the
anteriority of the first action: essendosi recato.
The demonstrative tutti quei in (A) makes sense
because it refers to something in the immediate context.
In the impersonal language of the written statement (B),
it is replaced by the definite article i.
Sentence
construction
The R2 version contains three sentences for a total of
five clauses, only one of which is a subordinate clause.
The R3 version is one long sentence, with seven
subordinate clauses.
A: each action in the story is a separate finite verb:
andavo, ho trovato, ho preso, sapevo, era stata
scassinata.
B: the main verb is dichiara. This is the only finite verb
(in fact the main clause is simply il sottoscritto
dichiara). All the action verbs are non-finite or
expressed as nominalizations: essendosi recato,
d’essere incorso, avere affettuato, non essendo a
conoscenza, l’avvenuta effrazione.
Prepositions
and adverbs
A: in (cantina); B: nei locali di
A: dietro; B: situati in posizione retrostante a
A: per; B: nell’intento di
A: di sopra; B: soprastante
Vocabulary
Semi-technical B: Il sottoscritto, dichiara, detti articoli
vocabulary
Nominalization A: accendere; B: eseguire l’avviamento
A: trovato; B: incorso nel rinvenimento
26
1.10 Extracts illustrating registers of Italian
A: preso; B: effettuato l’asportazione
A: era stata scassinata; B: l’avvenuta effrazione
Generic vs
specific
vocabulary
The precise, concrete terms of A are replaced in B by
more generic descriptions, e.g.:
A: la stufa; B: l’impianto termico
A: fiaschi di vino; B: prodotti vinicoli
A: cassa; B: recipiente
A: carbone; B: combustibile
A: bere (bermelo); B: consumare
A: bottiglieria; B: esercizio
Simple vs
complex
vocabulary
A: stamattina; B: nelle prime ore antimeridiane
A: andare; B: recarsi
A: cena; B: il pasto pomeridiano
A: sapere; B: essere a conoscenza di
Example of R3: formal letter
This recent, authentic, and unedited letter, from a State museum to a
person who had requested information, is in an elaborate style which
would be difficult to understand for most Italians.
oggetto: Richesta informazione su G.M. nato 1833. Invio.
Si dimette, qui compiegata, la relazione elaborata dalla dr.ssa P.B., che
presta servizio in quest’Istituto, circa l’indagine in oggetto, richiesta
dalla S.V.
In ordine alla ricerca perfezionata si concorda sul metodo, sul livello
d’approfondimento, sugli esiti.
Pertanto siffatta relazione s’approva, si sussume e si loda nella speranza
d’aver soddisfatto in congrua guisa la richiesta.
Il Direttore
The style is impersonal and elaborate in the extreme. The Direttore is
sending a report, prepared by a member of his staff, and gives it his
approval in this covering letter. But the use of impersonal si (for all main
verbs) and learned/archaic vocabulary gives a bureaucractic, almost
abstract, quality to the relationship between the writer of the letter and the
matters he is referring to.
Grammar All main verbs have impersonal si as subject.
Note lack of conjunction between the three
phrases in the second sentence.
Vocabulary
Items common in
formal
correspondence:
Oggetto:
in oggetto
dalla S.V.
Re:
above (i.e. in the line
beginning “Oggetto”)
by you (S.V. = Signoria
Vostra)
27
1 Varieties of language
Items not normally
found even in
bureaucratic language
si dimette (it) is released
qui
compiegata
attached, lit. “here folded
together”, usually allegata;
the expression corresponds
to “please find enclosed”
in ordine a with respect to
perfezionata (which has been) completed
siffatta such, this
s’approva not unusual elision of si
si sussume this verb means to subsume,
but here is equivalent to
adopt
si loda it is striking that the
Direttore praises the report
in congrua
guisa
in an appropriate way
28
Words and their meanings
The following points apply throughout Chapters 2 to 13.
Generally speaking, only the more common meanings of the Italian words
and expressions listed in this section are taken into consideration.
Italian adjectives are given in their masculine singular form.
The gender of Italian nouns is given in some difficult cases; for all other
instances refer to Chapter 14.
In normal Italian spelling, accents are written only on a stressed vowel at
the end of a word spelt with two or more vowels, e.g. citt`a, universit`a,
gi`a, pu`o (except for qua, qui, where the u cannot be stressed). Some
monosyllables take an accent to distinguish them from other words
otherwise spelt the same, e.g. `e – e, d`a – da, s´e – se, t`e – te, l`a – la.
An accent is not usually written on an internal vowel, though this may
occur to eliminate possible ambiguity, e.g. pr`ıncipi (pl of principe) –
princ`ıpi (pl of principio). We have used this device on many occasions
to help with pronunciation. In normal usage such accents should not be
written.
Whenever appropriate, the usual Italian pronunciation of words of foreign
origin is indicated in phonetic spelling in square brackets.
2 Misleading similarities
2.1 Similar form – different meaning: False friends
The following two sections list pairs of words in the two languages that
although similar in form have different meanings.
2.1.1 ‘Falsi amici’ I
Except for a handful of cases – namely, grugno/groin, ostrica/ostrich,
scannare/to scan, tappo/tap (2nd meaning), portiere/porter (2nd
meaning) – the pairs consist of cognates, i.e. words with a common origin.
“Falso amico” English equivalent English cognate Italian equivalent
abile skilful, clever able capace
accidente (m) (usu) stroke accident incidente (m)
agenda diary, notebook agenda ordine (m) del
giorno (less
frequently, agenda)
aggiudicare (qc a
qu)
to award (sth to sb) to adjudicate giudicare, decidere
agonia death pangs agony angoscia, dolore
acuto
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
The gender of nouns is
given only where it is
not predictable from the
principles given in
ch. 14.
In some words, an
accent is used to
indicate the main stress
but should not be used
when writing. See
p. 29.
The usual Italian
pronunciation of foreign
words is given in
phonetic spelling in
square brackets
whenever appropriate.
30
2.1 Similar form – different meaning
“Falso amico” English equivalent English cognate Italian equivalent
agonizzare (R2–3) to be in the death
throes
to agonize (over sth) tormentarsi (a
causa/proposito di
qc)
argomento topic, subject-matter;
reason
argument
(= discussion)
discussione, lite (f )
arguire (R3) to infer, to deduce to argue discutere, sostenere
assessore alderman, city/town
councilor
assessor (expert); (tax) perito;
agente delle tasse
attendere (qc/qu) to wait (for sth/sb) to attend (= to be
present)
to attend to sth/sb
(= to take care of
sth/sb)
assistere (a qc),
presenziare (qc)
(R3) assistere (qu),
badare (a qc/qu),
but also
attendere (a qc/qu)
(R3)
attico penthouse attic soffitta
attuale present, current actual reale, vero, di fatto
avvertimento warning advertisement annuncio
(pubblicitario),
inserzione
(pubblicitaria)
(newspaper),
pubblicit`a (radio,
TV, cinema)
baracca hut, shed, hovel barracks caserma (f s)
bordare to hem to board (a ship, a
plane)
- (a train, a bus, a car,
a bicycle)
- (to provide
lodgings) (tr), (to
take lodgings) (intr)
imbarcarsi, salire
(su)
salire (su+art./in)
alloggiare (tr)
alloggiare (intr)
bravo (adj) (adj) good (of people,
usually at doing
something);
(interj, with
agreement in Italian)
bravo! brava! etc.
brave coraggioso
camera room, chamber
but also camera
(not often, usu
television or cinema)
camera
- (cine, tele, video)
macchina
fotografica
macchina da presa,
cinepresa,
telecamera
31
2 Misleading similarities
“Falso amico” English equivalent English cognate Italian equivalent
campo field camp accampamento,
campeggio
carro cart, chariot, waggon car macchina,
auto(mobile)
(f R2–3)
casino (R1–2) brothel;
(R1∗-1) mess
(= confusione)
casino casin `o
casseruola saucepan casserole (piatto consistente
di) cibo cotto in
casseruola
casuale fortuitous casual informale,
semplice
casualmente fortuitously casually senza formalit`a,
semplicemente
cauzione security, bail caution cautela
cava quarry, pit cave caverna, grotta
cocomero water melon cucumber cetriolo
cognato/-a brother/sister in law cognate parente (m/f ),
congiunto; parola
affine
collegio (boarding) school;
also board, council,
body of people in the
same profession
college (UK, Aus)
-(US)
scuola (superiore),
pensionato
(universitario) also
(Cambridge, Oxford)
college [kɔllεd] (m)
universit`a, istituto
universitario
commediante
(m/f )
(R3) actor, (R1–2)
hypocrite, pretender
comedian (attore) comico,
attrice comica
commozione emotion commotion agitazione,
confusione,
trambusto
comodit`a comfort commodity merce (f ), prodotto
compiacente obliging, complaisant complacent compiaciuto di s´e
compiacenza courtesy,
complaisance;
satisfaction
complacency compiacimento di
s´e
complessione
(R2–3)
constitution (of
body)
complexion carnagione
32
2.1 Similar form – different meaning
“Falso amico” English equivalent English cognate Italian equivalent
concreto (adj) concrete (adj) concrete (n) calcestruzzo
(R2–3), cemento
concussione (R3,
leg.)
extortion,
misappropriation
concussion
-(med.)
scuotimento,
scossa
commozione
cerebrale
conduttore driver; conductor
(heat, electricity)
conductor (bus)
- (orchestra)
- (lightning rod)
bigliettaio
direttore
(d’orchestra)
parafulmine (m)
confrontare to compare to confront affrontare;
- (leg.) mettere a
confronto
but also (intr)
confrontarsi (con
qu) = to argue (with
sb)
consistente (adj)
- (pres. p.) (in/di)
solid; relevant;
consisting (of )
consistent coerente, costante
contento (adj) happy content (adj),
contented
content (n)
soddisfatto
contenuto
d`ecade (f ) period of ten
days
decade (= 10 years) decennio
deludere to disappoint to delude illudere
delusione disappointment delusion illusione
destituito removed from office destitute povero, indigente
(R2–3)
destituzione removal from office destitution povert`a, indigenza
(R2–3)
dilapidare (R3) to waste, to squander
(money, a fortune)
to dilapidate (tr) ridurre in cattivo
stato, mandare in
rovina
dilapidato wasted, squandered dilapidated (gen)
- (of buildings)
in cattivo stato
in rovina, cadente
disgrazia misfortune, accident disgrace
but to be in/to fall
into disgrace
vergogna, disonore
essere/cadere in
disgrazia
domanda question demand richiesta
domandare to ask for to demand esigere, pretendere
33
2 Misleading similarities
“Falso amico” English equivalent English cognate Italian equivalent
editore publisher editor
- (head of a paper)
- (edition reviser)
- (film)
redattore
direttore
curatore, editore
tecnico del
montaggio
educazione (usu) upbringing;
manners
education istruzione,
formazione
but also (as school
subject) educazione
(fisica/musicale/
sessuale etc.)
effettivo (adj) real, actual effective (adj) efficace
effettivamente in reality, actually effectively efficacemente
esito result, outcome exit uscita
estenuante tiring, weakening extenuating attenuante
estenuare (R3) to weaken, to tire (tr) extenuate attenuare
eventuale possible eventual finale
eventualmente possibly eventually alla fine
evidenza obviousness evidence prova,
testimonianza
evincere (R3) to deduce to evince dimostrare,
manifestare
fabbrica (usu) factory fabric tessuto, stoffa
facile easy facile superficiale
fastidioso annoying, vexing fastidious pignolo, esigente,
meticoloso
firma signature firm (n)
- (of lawyers)
ditta, impresa,
azienda
studio legale
fisico (n) physicist; physique,
body
physician medico, dottore
fracasso crash, din, uproar fracas rissa, lite (f )
geniale full of genius,
inspired, brilliant
genial gioviale, affabile,
cordiale
grazioso cute, graceful gracious gentile, cortese
grosso big, large gross grossolano, volgare,
crasso (R3)
grugno (R1–2) snout groin inguine (m)
guerriglia guerrilla warfare guerrilla (fighter) guerrigliero
inabitabile (adj) uninhabitable inhabitable abitabile
34
2.1 Similar form – different meaning
“Falso amico” English equivalent English cognate Italian equivalent
incidenza influence, effect incidence ricorrenza,
frequenza
but angle of
incidence = angolo
d’incidenza
infatti indeed in fact in effetti, anzi
ingenuit`a ingenuousness,
na¨ıvet´e
ingenuity ingegnosit`a
ingiuria insult injury ferita, lesione
ingiuriare to insult to injure (sb) ferire (qu), fare
male (a qu)
ingrossare (tr);
ingrossarsi (intr)
to cause sb/sth to
swell or to
become/look big/fat;
to swell, to become
big/fat
to engross (tr) assorbire,
affascinare
interrogazione (periodical) oral test
at school;
parliamentary
question
interrogation interrogatorio (by
police, during trials
etc.)
intimare (R2–3) to order, to
command
to intimate far capire,
sottintendere;
dichiarare
intossicare to poison to intoxicate ubriacare,
inebriare (R2–3)
invidioso envious invidious odioso
istanza (R3) petition instance esempio, but also
istanza (R3, leg.)
largo wide large grande, grosso
lettura reading lecture (formal)
- (university)
conferenza
lezione
libraio bookseller librarian bibliotecario
libreria bookshop library biblioteca
locazione (R3 leg.) renting; lease location posizione; posto
lussuria lust luxury lusso
lussurioso lustful luxurious lussuoso
marrone (m)
- (adj)
chestnut
chestnut brown
maroon (n) (color) marrone
rossiccio
miseria poverty, indigence misery infelicit`a,
sofferenza
35
2 Misleading similarities
“Falso amico” English equivalent English cognate Italian equivalent
misero poor, wretched miser avaro
moneta coin money denaro, soldi (m pl)
morbido soft morbid morboso
moroso slow to pay, defaulter morose cupo, tetro,
imbronciato
notorio generally known notorious famigerato
occorrenza (possible) need;
recurrence
occurrence avvenimento,
evento
occorrere to be necessary to occur accadere; venire in
mente
ossequioso obliging, respectful obsequious servile, adulatore
oste (m)
ostessa (f )
inn-keeper host
hostess
ospite (m/f, also=
guest), padrone/-a
di casa; but hostess
(on a plane) =
attendente di volo,
hostess (f )
` ostrica oyster ostrich struzzo
paesano (adj/n) relating to a small
town/dweller in a
small town (paese)
peasant contadino
pantomima mime show pantomime
(= Christmas show)
spettacolo
rappresentato nel
periodo natalizio
paragone (m) comparison paragon perfetto esemplare
parente (m/f ) relative, relation parent genitore
patente (f ) (usu) driving licence patent brevetto
pavimento floor pavement (sidewalk) marciapiede (m)
petrolio (mineral) oil,
petroleum
petrol (UK, Aus)
petrol (US)
benzina
gasolio, nafta
petulante insolent, impudent petulant irascibile, irritabile
petulanza insolence, impudence petulance irascibilit`a,
irritabilit`a
polluzione (R3
med.)
nocturnal emission
(during sleep)
pollution inquinamento
precipizio ravine, chasm precipice
but fig (= perilous
situation)
parete rocciosa
erta e scoscesa
precipizio
preservativo condom preservative (n) conservante (m)
36
2.1 Similar form – different meaning
“Falso amico” English equivalent English cognate Italian equivalent
pretendere to want to, to expect,
to claim (unjustly)
to pretend fingere, fare finta
prevaricare (R3) to act dishonestly, to
abuse one’s powers
to prevaricate agire in modo
ambiguo, cavillare
(R3), tergiversare
(R2–3)
processare to put on trial to process sottoporre a un
processo di
lavorazione;
elaborare (data);
considerare (to
consider)
pronto (adj) ready; (interj. inv)
hello (on the phone)
pronto (adv) immediatamente,
subito
querela law suit, legal action quarrel litigio, bisticcio
rapire to kidnap; (fig) to
enrapture
to rape violentare, stuprare
(R2–3)
recita play (usu by
amateurs, e.g. at
school)
recital esibizione solistica,
recital [usu rεtʃital]
retribuzione remuneration,
reward, pay
retribution castigo, punizione
riassumere to sum up, to
summarize;
to re-employ
to resume riprendere,
ricominciare
ricoprire to cover, to cover
again
to recover ricuperare,
ritrovare (tr)
riprendersi (intr)
riconoscenza gratitude reconnaissance ricognizione
ricordare to remember;
to remind
to record registrare
ricordo memory; souvenir record nota, documento;
record (sport etc.)
rilevante important,
outstanding
relevant pertinente
rilevanza importance relevance pertinenza
risentire (tr)
- (di qc)
to hear again, to feel
again;
to feel the effects
(of sth)
to resent (sth/sb) risentirsi (per
qc/con qu)
rude rough (of people) rude maleducato
37
2 Misleading similarities
“Falso amico” English equivalent English cognate Italian equivalent
rumore noise rumour voce (f ), diceria
scalpello chisel scalpel b`ısturi (m)
scannare to cut the throat (of
animals or people)
to scan scrutare; dare
un’occhiata;
scandire; (computer)
scannerizzare
(R2–3)
sensibile sensitive sensible sensato, assennato
simpatico nice, likeable sympathetic comprensivo
simpatia niceness (quality);
attraction (feeling)
sympathy comprensione,
commiserazione
sopportare to bear, to endure,
to tolerate
to support sostenere,
mantenere (= to
provide livelihood)
spada sword spade vanga; (card suit)
picche (f pl)
spogliare to undress, to strip
(also fig)
to spoil
- (fig, e.g. a child)
rovinare
viziare
sportivo (adj/n) sporty;
sportsman/-woman
sportive (adj) allegro
stravagante eccentric, odd extravagant spendereccio,
prodigo (R2–3, of
people), esoso
(R2–3, of prices),
eccessivo
tappo plug, cork tap (for water)
rubinetto; (light
blow) colpetto
leggero
triviale vulgar, obscene trivial banale, f ` utile
vacanza (usu) holiday vacancy usu translated with a
noun + libero (adj),
e.g. posto libero,
stanza libera;
but also (R3)
vacanza (e.g. della
sede pontificia)
vendicare to avenge, to revenge to vindicate giustificare,
rivendicare
vento wind vent foro di ventilazione
venuta (n) arrival, coming venue luogo convenuto
38
2.1 Similar form – different meaning
“Falso amico” English equivalent English cognate Italian equivalent
verbalizzare to include in a report
(tr); to write a report
(intr)
to verbalize esprimere a parole
verso (di una line (of a poem) verse (= stanza) strofa
poesia)
- (di un animale) call (of animals)
- (= poetry in gen)
- (Bible)
versi (m pl)
versetto
- (= direzione) direction, way
veste (f ) (s) = frock; garment,
clothing (often fig =
guise, capacity,
format)
(pl) = clothes
vest (UK)
- (US, Aus)
maglia
gil`e (m),
panciotto
2.1.2 “Falsi amici” II: English (or English looking) words with different
meaning in Italian
Some of the following words have been imported into Italian as part and
parcel of specific activities (e.g. the game of poker) or sports (e.g. football).
As a consequence, their use in Italian is limited to very definite contexts
and only partially overlaps with their use in English. Other words in the
list have totally different meanings in the two languages. The usual Italian
pronunciation of the foreign words in the following table has been
indicated in square brackets.
All the words listed are masculine nouns in Italian (unless otherwise
stated) and select their articles according to their pronunciation (e.g. il/un
jolly).
Word
English equivalents
of the word as
used in Italian
Italian synonyms
(if any)
Italian equivalents
of the word as used
in English
bar [bar] bar (place of
refreshment)
caff `e (m) bar
barra, sbarra (long
piece of
metal/wood);
saponetta (soap);
lingotto (gold etc.);
professione legale
(leg.); battuta (mus.)
basket [basket] basketball pallacanestro (f ) cesto, canestro
body [bɔdi] body suit, body
(stocking)
- corpo
39
2 Misleading similarities
Word
English equivalents
of the word as
used in Italian
Italian synonyms
(if any)
Italian equivalents
of the word as used
in English
box [bɔks] pen (esp horses,
cattle), playpen;
small garage
shower cubicle
recinto
(piccolo) garage
[ ara]; cabina per
la doccia
scatola (not big),
cassetta, cassa
(crate)
camping [kampiŋ ] camp-site campeggio (to go camping)
andare in
campeggio
cargo [kar o] cargo ship/plane nave/aereo da
carico
carico
cocktail
[kɔkteil/kɔktel]
cocktail party;
cocktail (also fig =
mixture);
-
- fig miscuglio,
miscela
cocktail
corner [kɔrner] corner kick (football) calcio d’angolo angolo
eskimo/eschimo
[εskimo]
type of wind-cheater
fashionable in the
1970s
giaccone (m)
(impermeabile)
eschimese
flipper [flipper] pinball machine biliardino
(elettrico)
pinna
footing [futiŋ ] jogging - equilibrio (balance);
base (f ), basamento
(of buildings, R3)
full [ful] full house (in poker) - pieno (adj)
goal [ ɔl] (often
written gol)
goal (football scoring) rete (f ) scopo, meta, fine (m);
porta (football
structure)
golf [ ɔlf] jumper (UK, Aus),
sweater (US);
golf (sport)
maglione (m),
maglia di lana
golf (sport)
hostess [ɔstes] (f ) air hostess, female
flight attendant
attendente (f in this
case) di volo
padrona di casa
jeans; [dints] (usu
m p, but also m s and
inv adj)
jeans, denim (una
gonna (di) jeans =
a denim skirt)
- jeans
jolly [dɔlli] joker (playing card) matta allegro (adj),
cordiale (adj)
mister [mister] football coach allenatore signor(e)
office (R2–3) [ɔffis] butler’s pantry
laundry
anticucina
guardaroba,
lavanderia
ufficio
40
2.2 Similar form – partly similar meaning
Word
English equivalents
of the word as
used in Italian
Italian synonyms
(if any)
Italian equivalents
of the word as used
in English
poker [pɔker] poker (game)
four (of a kind, e.g.
poker d’assi = four
aces)
- (quattro)
poker (game);
attizzatoio (for fire)
record [rεkord] record (sport etc.) primato documento, atto;
disco (mus.); record
(sport etc.)
relax [relaks] relaxation riposo, distensione rilassarsi (V),
distendersi (V)
scotch [skɔttʃ] adhesive tape
Scotch whisky
nastro adesivo
whisky [wiski]
note: (usu) il/un/i
whisky
scozzese (adj)
smoking [zmɔkiŋ ] dinner jacket (UK,
Aus), tuxedo (US)
- fumare, fumante,
fumando
stage [sta, but often
steid/stεid]
training period,
workshop
corso, periodo di
tirocinio
palcoscenico, scena
starter [starter] choke (car) (valvola dell’) aria motorino
d’avviamento
tight [tait] morning suit - stretto (adj); teso
(adj)
2.2 Similar form – partly similar meaning: Partial
deceptive cognates
The cognates listed in this section have partially overlapping meanings in
the two languages. In some way, they are even more deceptive than the
previously listed ‘straightforward’ false friends. The semantic proximity
between these cognates is intrinsically unstable and provides ideal
conditions for the expanding influence of English on the Italian language.
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
The gender of nouns is
given only where it is
not predictable from the
principles given in
ch. 14.
In some words, an
accent is used to
indicate the main stress
but should not be used
when writing. See
p. 29.
The usual Italian
pronunciation of foreign
words is given in
phonetic spelling in
square brackets
whenever appropriate.
41
2 Misleading similarities
Italian
Partly equivalent
English lookalike Notes
abusare (di qc/qu)
(R2–3)
to abuse (= to take
advantage of sth/sb,
to commit indecent
assault on sb)
but to abuse (= to insult) = insultare
accomodare to accommodate
(= to reconcile)
also = (usu) to fix, to repair
accomodarsi = to make oneself
comfortable, e.g.
prego, si accomodi! = please, come in/sit
down!
but accommodate (= to provide lodgings)
= ospitare, alloggiare
accusare to accuse also (accusare un dolore fisico;
accusare il colpo) = to show
affettare to affect (= to show) but to affect (= to influence) = influire (su
qc/qu)
aggiustare to adjust (= to
rearrange, esp of
clothes)
also = (usu) to fix, to repair, to mend
alcolico (adj) alcoholic (of
drinks, substances)
also (m) = alcoholic drink
but alcoholic (n, of a person) = alcolizzato
alterare (qc) (R2–3) to alter (sth, usu for
the worse)
but to alter (gen) = cambiare
amministrare to administer, to
administrate (= to
manage, to govern)
but to administer
(= to give) = dare
(= to give medicines, sacraments) =
somministrare (R3)
annoiare to annoy also (usu) = to bore
but to annoy (usu) = dare fastidio,
seccare (R1–2), scocciare (R1)
applicazione application;
concentration; the act
of applying (e.g.
medicaments), of
putting into practice
(e.g. theories)
but application (for a job) = domanda (di
lavoro)
appuntamento appointment
(engagement)
but appointment (designation) = nomina
assassinio assassination also = murder
astuto astute (cunning) but astute (discerning) = sagace, avveduto
avarizia avarice (miserliness) but avarice (greed) = avidit`a
42
2.2 Similar form – partly similar meaning
Italian
Partly equivalent
English lookalike Notes
bomba bomb also = a great thing/person (R1)
but bomb (US, Aus = failure) = fiasco;
(Aus = old car) = catorcio (R1), carretta
(R1)
bordo board in the
expressions on board
= a bordo, outboard
= fuori bordo
(engine or boat)
but board (= plank) = tavola, asse (m);
- (= body of people with decision-making
powers) = consiglio (di amministrazione),
collegio
- half/full board = mezza pensione/
pensione completa
cancelliere chancellor but chancellor of a university = rettore
carattere character (feature,
personality, font)
but character (in a book etc) =
personaggio
carta card
- da gioco = playing
card;
- di credito = credit
card
- da visita (rare) =
business card
also = paper, document, map, charter
cartello (R3 econ.) cartel also (usu) = sign, placard
catapulta catapult (milit.) but catapult (=sling) = fionda
collare (m) collar (for animals,
priests)
but collar (shirt) = colletto, collo
- (coat) = bavero
- (necklace) = collana
- collar bone = clavicola
collettore (R3) collector (tax, money) also = collection drain, river etc.
but collector (stamps, art etc.) =
collezionista (m/f )
compasso compasses, calipers but compass = bussola
competizione competition
(= contest)
but competition
(= rivalry) = rivalit`a
- (comm.) = concorrenza
comprensivo comprehensive
(= inclusive)
also (of persons) = understanding
but comprehensive (= exhaustive) =
esauriente
compromesso (n) compromise also (leg.) = preliminary contract
43
2 Misleading similarities
Italian
Partly equivalent
English lookalike Notes
concorrere to concur (= to
contribute, a qc = in
sth)
also = to participate (e.g. concorrere
alle spese = to participate in the expenses);
to compete
but to concur (= to agree) =
essere d’accordo, concordare
conferenza conference
(e.g. conferenza
stampa = press
conference)
also = (formal) lecture
confidenza confidence (= faith in
oneself )
also = familiarity; confidential revelation
confortevole (R2–3) comfortable (active, =
giving comfort)
also = comforting
but comfortable (passive = at ease) =
comodo (also active, = giving comfort)
congelare,
congelarsi (intr)
to congeal (= to
freeze)
but to congeal (= to coagulate) =
coagulare (intr -si)
consentire (a qc,
con qu su qc)
to consent also (tr) = to allow (sth to sb = qc a qu)
controllare to control also = to check, to verify, to inspect
convenzione convention
(= agreed usage)
but convention (= conference) =
convegno, congresso, conferenza
coscienza conscience also = conscientiousness, consciousness
(essere) costipato (R3) (to be)
constipated
(usu soffrire di
stitichezza, (essere)
stitico (R1–2))
also (not common) = to have a cold
costipazione (R3) constipation (usu
stitichezza)
also (not common) = bad cold
creatura creature also (R1) = child
crema cream (of milk;
cosmetic; also fig =
best part of sth)
also = custard
but cream (of milk) = (usu) panna (less
frequently, crema (di latte))
- (medicament) = (usu) pomata
cristianit`a Christianity also = Christendom
decadere to decay (= to
decline)
but to decay (= to rot) = marcire
– (= to decompose (intr)) = decomporsi
– (of teeth) = cariarsi
decente decent (= proper,
appropriate)
but decent (of moral quality) =
rispettabile
44
2.2 Similar form – partly similar meaning
Italian
Partly equivalent
English lookalike Notes
deferire (R2–3) to defer (= to refer) but to defer (= to postpone) = differire
(R2–3), rimandare
denunziare to denounce also = to make known to the authorities,
to report, to reveal, to expose
difettivo (R3) defective (gram.) but defective (gen, = faulty) = difettoso
differire to differ also (R2–3) = to defer, to delay
domestico (adj) domestic (related
to home and family)
also domestico (n) = house servant
but domestic (internal affair) = interno,
nazionale
emozione emotion also = excitement, agitation
enfasi emphasis also (usu) = undue emphasis, rhetorical
exaggeration, bombast
enfatico emphatic also (usu) = over-emphatic, bombastic
epico (adj) epic (adj) but epic (n) = poema epico, epopea
(R2–3)
esibizione exhibition (display) also presentation (of documents); show;
performance
but exhibition (= exposition) =
esposizione, mostra
espletivo (R3) expletive (= filler, esp
gram.)
but expletive (= swear-word) =
imprecazione (R2–3), parolaccia (R1–2)
facilit`a facility (ease) but facility (= facilitation) =
facilitazione, agevolazione; facilities
(= installations) = attrezzature (f pl)
fallire to fail also = (intr) to go broke/bankrupt; (tr) to
miss (a target etc)
familiare (adj) familiar also = pertaining to the family, familial
ferale (R3) feral (funereal) but feral (= wild) = selvaggio, selvatico
- (=cruel)=crudele
fermo (adj) firm (steady,
determined)
also = still, motionless;
- (as a command, with agreement) stop!
festa feast (holiday) also (R1–2) = (generic for) birthday,
name day
but feast (= banquet) = banchetto,
festino (R2–3)
45
2 Misleading similarities
Italian
Partly equivalent
English lookalike Notes
festivo festive (relating to
holidays)
but festive (= merry) = festoso, allegro
figura figure (shape,
illustration, person)
but figure (= number) = numero, cifra
- (= amount) = somma, cifra
fine (adj) fine (refined, thin) but fine (= beautiful) = bello
- (= good) = (molto) buono, (molto)
bravo (of people)
flemma phlegm (coolness) but phlegm (= mucus) = sputo
(mucoso), scaracchio (R1)
forma form also = mould
but form (document to fill) = modulo
- (= school level) = classe (f )
formazione formation also = education, training
frase (f ) phrase also = sentence
frizione (R2–3) friction
(massage); (R3)
rubbing between two
bodies (physics)
also (usu) = clutch (cars)
but friction (between surfaces or people)
(usu) = affrito
fungo fungus also = mushroom, toadstool
idioma (m) idiom (= language,
dialect)
but idiom (= expression typical of a
language) = locuzione, idiomatismo
(R3), frase idiomatica
ignorare to ignore also = not to know (note: ignorante
(R1) = rude)
importante important also = considerable (sum, loss)
inconscio (adj) unconscious
(of behaviour)
but unconscious (of people,=out cold) =
svenuto, incosciente, privo di sensi
incosciente unconscious (= out
cold)
also = irresponsible, careless
intendere to intend also = to hear, to understand
intervenire (in qc,
su qc/qu)
to intervene also (a qc) = to be present, to take part
- (su qc/qu) = to operate (surgically) (on
sth/sb)
introdurre to introduce (to let in,
to put in; to start)
but to introduce (= to make people meet)
= presentare
46
2.2 Similar form – partly similar meaning
Italian
Partly equivalent
English lookalike Notes
invalido (n/adj) invalid (= disabled
[person])
but invalid (of things, = not valid) = (usu)
non valido (invalido is only R3 leg.)
investire to invest also = to run down (with a vehicle), to
collide with sb/sth; to assail, to hit
istruire to instruct also = (leg.) istruire un’inchiesta = to
start an investigation
but istruito (adj) = educated, learned
lancio launch, launching (of
rockets, missiles etc.;
of products on the
market)
also = throwing, throw (gen, including
sport, e.g. lancio del disco = discus
throw); jump, drop (with a parachute);
introduction (of an actor, for instance)
but launch (of a ship) = varo
- (of a book) = presentazione
- (= boat) = lancia, scialuppa, barca
lavoro labor (econ.) also (usu) = work, job but labor (= hard
work) = fatica
- (= working people/time) =
manodopera
- (in giving birth) = doglie (f pl), e.g.
avere le doglie = to be in labor)
- (political party) = partito laburista
licenza licence also = leave (milit.); school leaving
examination/diploma
but driving licence = patente (f )
manifestazione manifestation also = demonstration (political etc.)
marcia march (milit., mus.) also = speed, gear (mech.); motion
e.g. mettere (tr)/mettersi (intr) in marcia
(to set into motion, to get going); walk;
walking (sport discipline)
materiale (m) material (= matter) but material (= fabric) = stoffa
medicazione (R2–3) medication
(application of
medicament)
also = wound dressing
but medication (= medicament) =
medicina, medicamento (R2–3)
mobile (adj) mobile, movable also mobile (m) = piece of furniture
muovere to move (tr) but to move (emotionally) =
commuovere
- (gen, intr) = muoversi
- (house) = traslocare, trasferirsi
opportunit`a opportunity also = opportuneness, timeliness
47
2 Misleading similarities
Italian
Partly equivalent
English lookalike Notes
orfano orphan also (orfano di padre/di madre) =
fatherless/motherless
palazzo palace also multi-story building, block of flats
pensione pension also = superannuation; boarding house;
boarding charge; accommodation with
meals (pensione completa = full board,
mezza pensione = half board)
percepire to perceive also = to receive (usu pay/salary)
pezzo piece (part from a
whole; chess, music,
etc.)
also = newspaper article; excerpt; part
(mech.);
idiom.: un pezzo = a long time; (un)
pezzo di . . . = a great big . . . (e.g. un
pezzo d’uomo = a great big man; pezzo
d’asino! = you great big dunce!);
pezzo grosso = bigwig; pezzo forte =
pi`ece de r´esistance.
polso pulse (med.) also (usu) = wrist
pope (m) pope (Greek
Orthodox priest,
papa)
but Pope (= Pontiff ) = papa (m)
portento portent (= prodigy) but portent (= omen) = presagio
portiere porter (= janitor) also = goalkeeper (sport)
but porter (for luggage) = facchino
preparazione preparation but the preparations (for an event) = i
preparativi;
- (chem.) = preparato
preservare to preserve (= to
protect)
but to preserve (= to keep in good
condition) = (usu) conservare
primitivo primitive (crude;
primordial)
also = former, earlier, originary
processo process also = lawsuit, trial
propaganda propaganda also = advertising
proposizione (R3) proposition (math.) also = clause (gram.)
but proposition (= proposal) =
proposta
proseguire to prosecute (to
continue)
but to prosecute (legally) = (tr)
perseguire; (intr) ricorrere in giudizio
provvedere to provide (to make
available)
also = to take (the necessary) steps;
- (a qc/qu) = to look after sth/sb
48
2.2 Similar form – partly similar meaning
Italian
Partly equivalent
English lookalike Notes
questione question (problem) but question (= interrogation) =
domanda
reale real also = royal
reattore reactor also = jet (plane, engine)
registrare to register, to record also (mech.) = to adjust
regno reign also = kingdom
relazione relation(ship) also = affair; report
but relation (= kinship) = parentela
- (= relative) = parente (m/f )
resto rest (= remaining
part)
also = balance (of a payment), change;
- (math.) = remainder
resti (pl) = remains
but rest (repose) = riposo
reticente (R2–3) reticent (= unwilling
to talk)
but reticent (= reluctant) = rest`ıo,
riluttante
revisione revision (contracts,
texts etc.); overhaul
(engines); auditing
(accounts)
but revision (= review for an exam etc.) =
ripasso
ricezione reception (radio waves
etc.)
but reception (= party) = ricevimento
- (= receiving sb) = accoglienza
- (hotel) = reception [resεppʃon] (f )
riconciliare to reconcile (= to end
a disagreement)
but to reconcile (= to harmonize) =
conciliare
ricorrenza recurrence also = (recurrent) occasion/festivity
ricorrere to recur also = to have recourse, to resort
riferirsi (a qc/qu) to refer (to) (intr) also riferire (tr) = to tell, to report,
to relate
but to refer (tr) = (ri)mandare, deferire
riportare to report also = to bring/take back;
to carry over (of numbers)
ristorare to restore (= to
refresh)
but to restore (art works, buildings) =
restaurare
santuario
sanctuary (temple) but sanctuary (= place of protection) =
asilo (for people); riserva (naturale) (for
animals)
scenario scenario also (usu) = theater set, scenery (also
fig)
49
2 Misleading similarities
Italian
Partly equivalent
English lookalike Notes
scolaro, -a scholar (= schoolboy,
-girl)
but scholar (= learned person) =
studioso, erudito (R2–3)
secolare secular (lay) also = hundreds of years old
sentenza sentence (leg.) but sentence (gram.) = frase (f )
sicurezza security (stability;
financial security)
also = safety (e.g. sicurezza stradale =
road safety, cintura di sicurezza = safety
belt); (self-)confidence
sicuro secure (stable; with no
danger, well defended)
also = safe (e.g. al sicuro = safe, in a safe
place); sure; confident, steady (of persons);
(adv, R1–2) certainly, di sicuro = certainly
soggetto subject (gram., art) also = person
but subject (= school topic) = materia
- (of a country) = cittadino
- (of a ruler) = suddito
sostanziale substantial
(= fundamental)
but substantial (of meals) = sostanzioso
- (= considerable) = considerevole,
consistente
- (= solid) = solido
sperimentare (tr) to experiment
(on/with sth)
also = to try, to experience
spettacolo spectacle but spectacles (= glasses) = occhiali (m pl)
stabilimento establishment (act of
establishing)
also = specialized building for industrial
(and other) purposes, works, factory
storia story also = history
succedere (intr) to succeed (= to
follow)
also = to happen
but to succeed (= to be successful) =
riuscire, avere successo (in qc)
suggestione suggestion
(psychological)
but suggestion (= piece of advice) =
suggerimento
superbo (of things) superb also (of people) proud, haughty
suscettibile susceptible but susceptible to (e.g. disease) =
soggetto a
tavola table (set for eating) also = plank, board; but table (gen) =
tavolo
temporale (adj) temporal also temporale (m) = (thunder)storm
termine (m) term also = boundary; end but term (time) =
periodo (di tempo)
- (= 3 months of school) = trimestre
50
2.3 Paronyms with similar meanings
Italian
Partly equivalent
English lookalike Notes
trio trio (music); (fig.) set
of three persons
connected in some
way (work etc.)
but trio of things (or persons, in some
cases) = terna (R2–3);
note: terzetto (threesome) is used if the
connection between three persons is
coincidental.
tronco (m) trunk (tree, body) but trunk (luggage) = baule (m)
- (car) = bagagliaio, baule (m)
- (elephant) = prob` oscide (f )
udienza (R2–3) audience (papal) also = court hearing (leg.)
but audience (theater etc.) = pubblico,
spettatori (m pl)
umore (R3) humour (=
[biological] liquid)
also (usu) = mood
but humour (= wit) = umorismo
vago vague also (R3, literary) = eager; beautiful;
wandering
vano (adj) vain (= useless,
empty)
also vano (n) = space; room; opening
but vain (= conceited) = vanitoso
verificare to verify also = to check
note: verificarsi = to happen
vizioso vicious (= corrupt) but vicious (= savage, ferocious) =
selvaggio, feroce
vuoto (n) void (= vacuum,
emptiness)
also (adj) = empty
but void (= vacant) = vacante
- (= devoid) = privo (di qc/qu)
- (= null) = nullo
2.3 Paronyms with similar meanings
The highly phonetic nature of the Italian alphabet means that two words
identical in sound will have identical spelling. By comparison with
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
The gender of nouns is
given only where it is
not predictable from the
principles given in
ch. 14.
In some words, an
accent is used to
indicate the main stress
but should not be used
when writing. See
p. 29.
The usual Italian
pronunciation of foreign
words is given in
phonetic spelling in
square brackets
whenever appropriate.
51
2 Misleading similarities
languages like English or French, in Italian there are few real homonyms,
that is, unrelated words that sound the same but mean different things, e.g.
piano plan and piano plane, or scolare to drain and scolare (adj) related to
school. In most cases, the difference in meaning between identical Italian
words simply reflects different stages of the semantic evolution of the same
word, e.g. espresso (m) meaning express, special delivery letter, as well as
espresso (coffee). This section will therefore concentrate not on homonyms
but on paronyms, i.e. words with different meanings that, although not
identical, are similar enough in form and sound to constitute a potential
source of ambiguity for the student.
Intransitive verbs taking the auxiliary essere (cf. chapter 22) have been
indicated throughout this section.
2.3.1 Paronyms with similar meanings: a general list
accezione (R3)
meaning
accettazione
acceptance; reception (in a hospital)
accrescimento
(R2–3) increase
crescenza (R3)
growth (usu physical)
crescita
growth (gen)
alcolico
(adj) alcoholic
(of substances)
(n) alcoholic drink
alcolizzato(n)
alcoholic (person)
ambiente
atmosphere, ambience,
environment
`ambito
circumscribed space; (fig) scope, circle
animato
alive, lively; animated
animoso
brave; hostile
anno
year (gen); buon anno
= happy new year
annata
period of one year, with reference to its events or its duration, e.g.
una buona annata = a good year (in terms of production, usu
agricultural); all the issues for one year of a newspaper or periodical
apparizione
apparition
apparenza
outward appearance
argomentazione
line of reasoning;
complex of
interconnected
reasonings
argomento
topic, subject matter; reason
52
2.3 Paronyms with similar meanings
arrossare
(usu tr) to make red, to
redden
arrossire
(intr aux essere) to blush
assaporare
to savour (also fig)
insaporire
to make tasty
atterraggio
landing (of a plane)
atterramento
knocking down (of a person in wrestling, boxing etc.)
attrattiva
psychological
attraction, appeal;
(in the pl) appealing
features
attrazione
attraction (gen, also = highlight of a show)
avanzo
(econ.) surplus; (math.)
remainder; also (usu
pl) remains, leftovers;
(fig) avanzo di galera
= jail-bird
avanzata
advance (esp milit.)
avanzamento
act of advancing or
putting forward;
promotion; progress
boccata
mouthful (usu of
gaseous or liquid
substances); una
boccata d’aria = a
breath of fresh air
boccone (m)
mouthful of food, morsel; (fig) something to eat
bollare
to stamp; (fig) to brand
bollire
(tr and intr) to boil
caldo
(adj) warm (also fig)
(n) warmth, heath
caloroso
(adj) warm (only fig); (R1–2) said of a person who does not feel the
cold
calorifero (R2–3)
(n) radiator, heater
calorifico
(adj) calorific
calorico
(adj) caloric
cambiamento
change
cambio
change; swap, e.g. facciamo (a) cambio
(R1–2) = let’s swap; exchange (also
econ.), exchange rate; (mech.) gears,
gear-box
scambio
exchange (not econ.),
swap, trade; mix up;
scambio ferroviario
= railway
points/switch; scambi
commerciali = trade
53
2 Misleading similarities
campo
field (also fig); (sport)
field, oval, pitch,
court; camp (same
meaning as
accampamento, and
in set phrases, e.g.
piantare/levare il
campo = to pitch/to
strike camp)
accampamento
encampment, camp
(of troops, nomads,
refugees)
camping (m)
camp-site (for leisure)
campeggio
camp-site; camping,
e.g. andare in
campeggio = to go
camping
cantante (m/f ) cantore (R2–3,
cantora f )
cantautore (cantautrice f )
singer (gen) chorister (usu in
church)
singer who writes his/her own songs
canzone (f )
song (with words,
popular, e.g. le
canzoni della
prima guerra
mondiale = the
(pop-)songs of the
years of the First
World War); type of
poem
canto
art of singing, singing (also of birds); melody; song (liturgical, military,
e.g. i canti della prima guerra mondiale = the military songs of
the First World War); canto (poetry)
captare (R2–3)
to pick up, to
intercept (usu with
devices such as a radio
etc.)
catturare
to capture
carro
cart, waggon, chariot;
carro bestiame =
cattle wagon, stock
car (US); carro
armato = tank;
carro funebre =
hearse
carrello
trolley (cart)
(shopping, tea);
carriage (typewriter);
undercarriage (plane);
dolly (cinema)
carretta
small cart; (fig, R1)
old, run-down vehicle
carriola
wheelbarrow
carrozza
carriage; coach,
passenger car (US)
carrozzella
small carriage;
horse-drawn cart for
hire (in Rome and
Naples); pram, baby
carriage (US);
wheelchair
carrozzina
pram, baby carriage
(US)
carrozzone (m)
caravan (circus,
gipsies)
54
2.3 Paronyms with similar meanings
cattiveria
nastiness, naughtiness,
mischief (also =
naughty action)
cattivit`a
captivity
cava
quarry
caverna
cave
cemento
concrete
cimento (R3)
test, trial; danger
cerchio
circle; hoop
circo
circus
circolo
circle, circolo polare
artico/antartico = Arctic/Antarctic
Circle, circolo vizioso = vicious
circle; club, association
cinta
belt (clothing
accessory); enclosure
wall, cinta delle
mura = circle of
walls; muro di cinta
= boundary wall
cinghia
strap; belt (clothing
accessory, mechanical)
c`ıntola
belt (clothing accessory); waist
cintura
belt (clothing
accessory or for the
purpose of
protection, e.g.
cintura di sicurezza
= safety belt; cintura
di castit`a = chastity
belt); waist, girdle
cinturone (m)
holster-belt
cinturino
watch-strap
colorato
colored
colorito
(adj) colored, colorful (also fig of speech, but not of character); red
or pink, referring to the cheeks
(n) skin color (esp of the face); (fig) coloring of expression
(in language, music, art)
colpevole
(adj) guilty, culpable
(n, m/f ) culprit
colposo (R3)
culpable (of actions that are damaging but without malice),
omicidio colposo = manslaughter
compimento
(R2–3)
completion
complimento
compliment
complemento
complement
55
2 Misleading similarities
comp`ıto (R2–3)
usu well-mannered, polite,
but also completed
compiuto
(p.p. of compiere) completed, finished, ha compiuto tre
anni = he/she has turned three (years old)
comprensibile
comprehensible,
understandable
comprensivo
(of persons) understanding;
(of things) comprehensive, inclusive
concentrazione
concentration (also mental)
concentramento
concentration (not mental); campo di concentramento =
concentration camp
conduttore
(R2–3) driver (trains, public
transport, and also [R3]
Formula 1); conductor (of
heat, electricity); (R3 leg.)
tenant
conducente (m R2–3)
driver (esp public transport), e.g. non parlare al conducente
= do not speak to the driver
conoscente (m/f )
acquaintance
conoscitore (conoscitrice f )
connoisseur, expert
creatore
(adj) creative
(= that creates);
(n, creatrice f )
creator, il Creatore = the
Creator, the Maker
creativo (adj)
creative (= that can create, esp with reference to imagination)
cuocere
(tr with direct object always
expressed) to cook (to roast,
to boil etc), e.g. cuocere la
pasta = to cook/to boil the
pasta
(intr aux essere) to cook
(intr aux avere) (fig, R1–2)
to burn (of the sun), e.g. il
sole oggi cuoce = today
it’s very hot
cucinare
(tr) to (prepare and) cook food, a dish, a meal etc, e.g.
cucinare la pasta = to (prepare and) cook the pasta (and its
sauce, possibly); so cucinare (not so cuocere) = I can cook;
cucinare la cena = to prepare and cook dinner
deforme
deform
difforme (R2–3)
different, dissimilar
difettivo (R3)
defective (gram.)
difettoso
faulty, defective (gen)
deficiente
(R2–3) lacking sth; (R1) idiot
effettivo
actual
efficace
effective
efficiente
efficient
56
2.3 Paronyms with similar meanings
emotivo
emotional, excitable (of
persons), concerning
emotions
emozionante
exciting
energico
energetic, full of energy,
strong
energetico
concerning energy, e.g. fonte energetica = energy source
fallire
(tr) to miss (the mark)
(intr aux essere) to fail,
to be unsuccessful
fallare (R3)
to make a mistake, to err
famoso
famous, renowned
famigerato (R2–3)
notorious (usu of persons)
felicit`a
happiness
felicitazione
(usu in the pl) congratulations
festivit`a
festivity, holiday, (holy)
Day, e.g. la festivit`a della
Pasqua = Easter Day
festa
feast, holiday; party; (R1–2) birthday, name-day
(= onomastico)
festivo
relating to holidays and
non-working days in
general
festoso
festive, cheerful, merry
fondazione
act of founding, e.g. la
fondazione di Roma =
the foundation of Rome;
foundation (as in charitable
organization); (pl)
foundations of a building
fondamento
foundation (of a building, pl –a); also fig (pl -i), e.g. una
teoria senza fondamento = a groundless theory
fossa
hole in the ground; grave
fossato
ditch; moat
freddezza
coldness (also fig)
freddo
(n) cold
(adj) cold
freddura (R2–3)
witticism, pun
gelo
frost (in general, freezing
temperature, ice), e.g.
giorni di gelo = freezing
days
gelata
frost (a single occurrence of frost, for instance during one
night), e.g. questa settimana ci sono state due gelate =
this week there have been two frosts
57
2 Misleading similarities
giorno
day (a period of 24 hours
as well as, in contrast with
night, the period of
daylight, with all related
meanings); buon giorno!
= (usu) good morning!
but also = have a good
day! (concluding a visit, a
conversation etc); un bel
giorno = one day (in
stories); di giorno =
during the day, in daylight
giornata
day (usu the time between dawn and dusk, with reference to
the way of spending it or its duration or the ‘quality’ of its
events, including the weather); buona giornata! = have a
good day!; una bella giornata = a beautiful day; di giornata
= today’s, fresh (esp of eggs); in giornata = (within) today; a
special or historic day, e.g. le cinque giornate di Milano; la
giornata missionaria = Mission Day
giudiziario, giudiziale
(R3) concerning
judges or judgments,
judicial, judiciary
giuridico
concerning the law, legal
governatore
(governatrice f )
governor (official
position)
governante
(m) person who governs
(f ) nanny, housekeeper
giudicare
to judge
giustiziare
to execute
guardia
act of guarding, e.g.
fare la guardia a qc/qu
= to guard sth/sb; guard
(one or more soldiers or
armed citizens with
guarding responsibilities);
sentry
guardiano
keeper, guardian, watchman, e.g. guardiano dello zoo = zoo
keeper, guardiano notturno = night watchman
impazzire
to go mad
impazzare
to run wild
inclinare
(tr) to tilt, to tip
(intr) (R3) to lean; to be
inclined to
inchinare
= chinare, but less frequent
chinare
(tr) to lower, to bow, to
bend towards the ground,
usu head, eyes, e.g. il
capo, la testa, gli occhi,
lo sguardo, as a sign of
submission, modesty,
humiliation, shame etc.
58
2.3 Paronyms with similar meanings
inclinarsi
to tilt (intr), to bend
over (usu of things and
in a rather rigid way, in
opposition to piegarsi)
inchinarsi
to bow (also fig = to
give in), to curtsey
(= fare l’inchino/la
riverenza)
chinarsi
to stoop, to bend down (only of persons)
inconscio
(adj) unconscious
(of behaviour)
(n) unconscious
incosciente
irresponsible; unconscious (out cold)
informale
informal
informe
shapeless
informazione
piece of information
informatica
information science, IT
interesse (m)
interest
interessamento
interest (not econ.); intervention (usu of a bureaucratic or political
kind, as in “sb’s good offices”)
interrogazione
(periodical) oral test at
school; parliamentary
question
interrogatorio
interrogation (by police, during trials etc.)
lamento
lament, moan, wailing
lamentela
complaint
lingua
tongue (also fig);
language (of a
community, a nation; as
opposed to dialects)
linguaggio
language (gen, as way of communicating; in particular, faculty of
speech); way of speaking, jargon, e.g. linguaggio burocratico =
bureaucratic jargon
lusso/lussuoso
luxury/luxurious
lussuria/lussurioso
lust/lustful
mantenimento
sustenance, upkeep,
maintenance
manutenzione
maintenance (= repair and upkeep of machinery, roads etc.)
marcare
to stamp, to mark (also
in sports); to emphasize;
to score a goal
marchiare
to mark, to stamp, to brand (also fig)
mattino, mattina
morning (time of the
day)
mattinata
morning (period of time between dawn and midday, with reference
to its duration, to its events or to the weather)
59
2 Misleading similarities
medicina
medicine (science,
drug)
medicazione
dressing (of a wound);
application of
medication
medicamento (R2–3)
medicine (= drug)
medio
middle finger
media
average, mean
(mass) media (m pl)
[mas midja/mεdja]
(mass-) media
medium (m/f )
medium (in seances)
medio
(adj) medium, e.g.
altezza media =
medium height; in the
middle, e.g. le (scuole)
medie
inferiori/superiori
= ‘middle’ school (first
three years after
primary school)/high
school (next five years)
mediano
(adj) in the middle;
(n) centerfield player,
half-back (sport)
montagnoso/
montuoso
full of mountains,
mountainous, hilly
montanaro
(adj) pertaining to
mountain dwellers,
e.g. canzone
montanara =
mountain song
(m, f- a) mountain
dweller
montano
(adj) pertaining to the mountains, e.g.
flora montana = mountain flora
monte (m)
mountain, mount (esp
in names), e.g. il
monte Bianco
montagna
mountain, mountainous region, e.g. andare in montagna = to
go to the mountains
morbido
soft
morboso
morbid
notte (f )
night (gen)
nottata
night (with reference to the way of spending it or its duration or
the “quality” of its events, including the weather)
onda
wave (gen, also in
physics); the stress, also
in fig uses, is on
continuity and swelling
more than on breaking
power
ondata
breaker, wave; (fig) surge, wave; the stress, also in fig uses, is more
on the breaking power of the wave
60
2.3 Paronyms with similar meanings
originale
(adj) pertaining to the
origin (of sb/sth), original;
new, eccentric; authentic;
(n, m) original; (n, m/f )
eccentric person
originario
(adj) originally from a given place, e.g. originario
dell’America = originally from America; of the place of
origin, e.g. il paese originario = the country of origin;
original, former
perseguire
to pursue; (R3) to
prosecute (legally)
perseguitare
to persecute
piano
(adj) flat, level; plane
(adv) slowly; softly
(n) flat surface; plain; plane;
floor, storey; plan;
pianoforte
note plane tree =
pl`atano
- plane (tool) = pialla
piana
level ground, plain
pianura
plain, level ground
polpo
octopus
p`olipo
polyp
note: often also used for polpo
potere
capacity of acting according
to one’s will, power
(absolute, judicial,
legislative, executive etc.);
influence, authority
potenza
strength, power (physical, mech., math., and also = country);
potency (sexual)
pregiudicato
(m, f -a) previous offender
(leg.)
spregiudicato
(adj) free from prejudice; unscrupulous
preparazione
preparation (gen)
preparato
(n) preparation (chem.)
preparativo
(usu in the pl) preparations
presenziare
(tr/intr) to be present
(at sth = qc/a qc)
presentare
to introduce sb, to present
procedura
procedure
procedimento
way of proceeding; course, development; process; proceedings
(leg.)
processo
process, course; trial (leg.)
processione
procession
61
2 Misleading similarities
proposta
proposal
prop` osito
resolution, intention; topic, matter, e.g. in proposito = on this topic;
a proposito = while on this topic, by the way
radio
(f ) radio
(m R3) radius
(bone); radium
raggio
ray, beam (of light); spoke (of a wheel); radius (of a circle), e.g. nel
raggio di cinque chilometri = within a five-kilometer radius
rapimento
kidnaping
rapina
robbery (of banks, people etc., but not houses)
rapire
to kidnap, to abduct;
(fig) to enrapture
rapinare
to rob (banks, people etc., but not houses)
rec `upero
(ric`upero)
recovery, retrieval,
salvage; il ricupero/
i minuti di
ricupero = stoppage
time (sport)
ric`overo
hospitalization; shelter; old people’s home
recita
play (usu by amateurs,
at school etc.)
recital [usu ’rεtʃital]
solo performance, recital
relitto
wreck (also fig)
reliquia
relic (religious)
restaurazione
reinstatement,
restoration (politics,
history)
ristorazione
food catering,
restaurant catering
restauro
restoration (of
buildings, art etc.)
ristoro
refreshment, relief
ricetta
recipe; medical
prescription; (fig)
cure
ricettazione
receiving of stolen goods
riconoscenza
gratitude
riconoscimento
recognition;
acknowledgment
ricognizione
reconnaissance
rilassare
to relax (tr)
rilassarsi = to relax
(intr)
rilasciare
to release; to give (an interview); to issue (a document); (less common)
to relax (tr)
62
2.3 Paronyms with similar meanings
ritirare
to withdraw (tr, gen)
ritrarre
to withdraw, to draw
back, to retract (usu
hands, feet etc.); to
depict, to paint, to
make a portrait
ritrattare
to recant; to retract
(an accusation)
retrarre (R3)
to retract (as in
ritrarre)
ritiro
retreat, place of
retreat (religious or
similar); revocation
(of passport, driver’s
licence etc.);
collection (of money,
tickets etc.);
withdrawal (also
military, but without
urgency), e.g. il
ritiro
programmato dei
soldati dell’ONU =
the planned
withdrawal of the
UN soldiers
ritirata
retreat (military, usu in front of an advancing enemy); tattoo (milit.);
latrine
rocca
fortress (usu on a
mountain)
roccia
rock (substance, geological term)
romano
Roman
romanico
Romanesque
romantico
Romantic; romantic,
sentimental
romanzo
(adj R2–3) Romance;
(n) novel
romanesco
(adj) related to
modern Roman
customs (cuisine,
dialect etc);
(n) the dialect of
Rome
romanista
(adj) related to Roma
football team;
(n) supporter or player
of Roma football
team;
(R2–3) Romanist
(law, philology,
archeology)
romancio (R3)
Romansch
romeno/rumeno
Romanian
rotare (ruotare)
(tr and intr) to rotate,
e.g. la Terra ruota
intorno al sole =
the Earth rotates
around the Sun
roteare (R3)
(tr and intr) to rotate, to whirl, to roll around (quickly), e.g. roteare
gli occhi = to roll one’s eyes
63
2 Misleading similarities
segretario (m), -a (f )
secretary
segreteria
secretary’s office, secretariat
seguire
to follow
seguitare
to continue
selvaggio
(adj) wild, of anything
that lives in forests or
wild places, often
(also fig) with a
connotation of
fierceness and
violence; pertaining
to a very primitive
culture
(n) savage
selvatico
(adj) wild, of spontaneous plants and untamed animals that live free
from human interference
(n) gamy flavour or smell, e.g. sa di selvatico = it tastes gamy
sensato
sensible, judicious
sensibile
sensitive; noticeable,
perceptible
sensitivo
sensitive; sensorial
sera
evening (time of the
day), di sera = in the
evening; ieri sera =
last night, yesterday
evening
serata
evening, night (period of time between sunset and the night, with
reference to its duration, its events or the weather); soir´ee, evening
performance or ball or party
sostenere
to support, to
maintain (also fig);
sostenere un esame
= to sit for an exam
sostentare
to provide sustenance, to maintain economically
sostanziale
fundamental;
(philosophy, R3)
constituting a
substance
sostanzioso
full of substance, substantial (e.g. un pasto sostanzioso = a
substantial meal)
spezia
spice
specie (f )
species
spirituale
spiritual
spiritoso
witty, funny
spir`ıtico
spiritistic, spiritualistic
64
2.3 Paronyms with similar meanings
squadra
set-square; team;
squadron (two or more
divisions in the navy or
the air force)
squadriglia
squadron (air force, small vessels)
squadrone (m)
squadron (cavalry, tanks)
suggerimento
suggestion, piece of
advice
suggestione
suggestion (psychological); influence, instigation
tavola
plank; table (set for
eating) e.g. a tavola =
at/to the dinner table);
table (with columns and
rows) e.g. la tavola
pitagorica =
multiplication table;
table (ancient law) e.g.
le tavole della legge
= the Tables of the
Law; illustration in a
book; tablet, panel
tavolo
table = piece of furniture, for all
purposes, e.g. tavolo da
biliardo = pool table; tavolo da
gioco = card table
tavolino
small table, usu for writing or
studying, desk; small table in a
bar or a “caff`e”
tavolato (R2–3)
plank floor; paneling
tabulato (R2–3)
tabulation
tabella
table (arrangement of data in
columns and rows)
televisione
television (gen,
including television set)
televisore
television set
tempestoso
stormy
tempestivo
timely
tempestato (R2–3)
covered with, e.g. una corona
tempestata di diamanti = a
crown covered with diamonds
terra
earth; land; soil;
ground, e.g. per terra
= on the ground
terreno
(n) ground; terrain; soil; plot of
land;
(adj) worldly, earthly
(as opposed to heavenly),
e.g. vita terrena as opposed to
vita eterna
terrestre
(n) earthling;
(adj) terrestrial, of the Earth;
earthly, e.g. paradiso terrestre
= Earthly Paradise; referring to
land as opposed to sea
t `onico
(n) tonic, reconstituent;
(adj) tonic
tonale
(adj) tone-, tonal
65
2 Misleading similarities
trattamento
treatment
tratto
stroke, line; section
(of a road etc.)
trattato
treaty; treatise
ufficiale
(m) official (= person
with a position in a
public office); officer
(military);
(adj) official
ufficioso
(adj) semi-official, unofficial, e.g. in via ufficiosa = unofficially
ufficio
office (also as a place);
duty
officina
workshop, small factory
valido
valid; strong
valoroso
valorous, valiant
valente (R2–3)
skilful
di valore
valuable (objects);
leading (persons)
veglia
wakefulness, vigil,
e.g. veglia funebre
= wake
sveglia
time for waking up, wake-up call, dare la sveglia a qc = to give sb a
wake-up call; alarm clock
vetro
glass (material), sheet
of glass, piece of
broken glass
vetrata
large window, usu with fixed
panes; stained-glass window
vetrina
shop window;
show-case,
glass-fronted
cupboard
vetrino
slide (for the
microscope)
vincita
win (lottery, gambling
etc.)
vittoria
victory (war, sport etc.)
vizioso
vicious, corrupt
viziato
spoilt; vitiated
votazione
vote (= act of voting);
mark, grade (school)
voto
vow; vote, voting; mark, grade (school)
2.3.2 Paronyms with similar meaning: misleading “alterati”
This is a special subset of cognate paronyms, some of which (e.g.
tavolo/tavolino, carro/carrello) were included in the table above with
other related words. As indicated in a separate chapter of this book (see
chapter 5, Suffixes), many Italian nouns are alterations of existing words
through suffixes but have meanings of their own. As a consequence, we
have sets of paronyms in which the original value of the alteration has
66
2.4 Paronyms with different meanings
been lost, giving rise to situations that are potentially confusing for the
student. It must be stressed that the list given here is only a small
sample.
busta
envelope
bustarella (R1–2)
bribe
bustina
small paper packet
with one dose of
medicine or other
substances, e.g.
bustina di t`e =
tea-bag
canna
reed; cane, rod; barrel
(gun); flue (chimney);
pipe (organ);
cross-bar (bicycle);
(R1) joint (e.g.
marijuana)
cannone (m)
cannon
cannuccia
straw (for drinks)
cannella
(spout of a) tap,
e.g. bere alla
cannella = drink
from the tap;
cinnamon
casa
house, home
casino
(R1–2) brothel; (R1∗–1) mess, confusion, racket
forca
hayfork, pitchfork;
(usu) gallows
forcina
hairpin
forcone (m)
dung-fork,
hayfork, pitchfork
forchetta
fork (for eating)
mazzo
bunch, bundle
mazzetta
(R1–2) bundle of banknotes; (R1) bribe
pane (m)
bread
panino
(usu) sandwich
storia
history; story
storiella
joke
note: short story = novella
vigna
vineyard
vignetta
illustration, cartoon
2.4 Paronyms with different meanings
In the following list, the paronyms within each set are generally unrelated
and their meanings quite different.
art´efice (m/f )
artist, author, maker,
creator
artificio
artifice
67
2 Misleading similarities
atterrare
(tr) to knock down;
(intr) to land
note: to land on the
moon = allunare; on
the sea = ammarare
atterrire
to frighten
calare
(tr) to lower;
(intr aux essere) to
descend
colare
to filter; to drip, to ooze
(also intr aux essere)
c`anone (m)
canon (mus., also =
norm); rent, fee, e.g. il
canone d’affitto =
the rent
cannone (m)
cannon; (fig, R1) `e un
cannone = he/she is
very good (at sth)
can`onico
(n) canon (religious);
(adj) canonical
commendatore
honorary title; person
with such title
commentatore
annotator; commentator
consigliare
to advise, to counsel
conciliare
to reconcile; to be
conducive to; to (agree to)
pay a fine on the spot
consiglio
advice; council, board
(of directors etc)
concilio
council (religious), e.g.
concilio ecumenico =
ecumenical council
fango
mud
fungo
mushroom, toadstool,
fungus
feroce
ferocious, savage,
fierce
ferace (R3)
fertile (also fig)
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
The gender of nouns is
given only where it is
not predictable from the
principles given in
ch. 14.
In some words, an
accent is used to
indicate the main stress
but should not be used
when writing. See
p. 29.
The usual Italian
pronunciation of foreign
words is given in
phonetic spelling in
square brackets
whenever appropriate.
68
2.4 Paronyms with different meanings
folla
crowd
folle
(adj) mad
(n m/f ) mad person
fondare
to found
f ´ondere
to smelt, to fuse, to
melt
f `endere
to split, to cleave,
to cut through sth
greggio
(adj) raw
(n) crude oil
gregge (m)
flock (of sheep), also fig
note: greggi (pl) is usu
feminine
inferire (R3)
to infer; to inflict
infierire (su/contro qu)
to act with ferocity
against sb
insolazione (R2–3)
insolation, sunstroke
isolamento
isolation; insulation
marciare
to march
marcire
to rot
messa
Mass (religious)
messe (f )
harvest
negare
to deny
annegare
(tr/intr aux essere) to
drown
parte (f )
part, share, side
parto
childbirth
prodigio
portent; prodigy, e.g.
ragazzo prodigio =
child prodigy, genius
pr`odigo
prodigal, e.g. il figliol
prodigo = the prodigal
son
proposizione
clause (gram.)
preposizione
preposition
rimediare
(tr) to fix roughly;
(R1) (to manage) to
obtain sth; (intr) to put
right (sth = a qc)
rammendare
to mend, to darn
rammentare
to remember; to
remind (sb sth = a
qu qc)
riporto
number/amount
carried over
rapporto
report
69
2 Misleading similarities
scala
stairs, staircase, ladder;
scale (in music,
measurements, also
fig); straight, run
(cards)
scaglia
scale (in animals); chip,
flake
sc`andalo
scandal, outrage
scandaglio
sounding-line,
sounding-lead
schermare (R2–3)
to screen, to shield
schermire (R3)
(tr) to defend, to
shield; (intr) to fence
(sport)
schernire (R2–3)
to scorn, to deride
teste (m/f )
witness
testo
text
testa
head
tetto
roof
tetta (R1∗-1)
tit
tettoia
cover, roofed shelter
tono
tone
tuono
thunder
tonno
tunny-fish, tuna
2.5 Verbs with similar stems
The following table is an indicative sample of a vast category of Italian
verbs. The semantic differences generated by the use of different prefixes
with common stems are at times subtle, at times surprisingly obvious, and
are therefore potentially confusing for the student.
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
The gender of nouns is
given only where it is
not predictable from the
principles given in
ch. 14.
In some words, an
accent is used to
indicate the main stress
but should not be used
when writing. See
p. 29.
The usual Italian
pronunciation of foreign
words is given in
phonetic spelling in
square brackets
whenever appropriate.
70
2.5 Verbs with similar stems
abbassare
to lower (gen)
ribassare
to lower (prices, rent etc.), e.g. ribassare i prezzi
affrontare
to confront, to face,
to tackle
confrontare
to compare
battere
to beat (gen, in an
orderly way; also = to
win); to strike;
battere a macchina
= to type; to serve
(tennis etc.); battere
un rigore/una
punizione/un
calcio d’angolo =
to take a penalty/a
free kick/a corner
kick (football);
to flap (wings)
sbattere
to beat (in a rough way:
rugs, eggs); to throw sb/sth
against sth (contro qc);
sbattere la porta = to slam
the door; to bump (sth)
against/into sth, e.g. ho
sbattuto (la testa) contro
il tavolo; to flap (wings);
sbattersene (R1∗-1) = not
to give a damn
battersi
to hit oneself;
to fight
imbattersi (in
qu/qc)
to run into sb, to
come across sth
cacciare
(tr) to hunt; to chase
away, to throw out; to
stuff (into sth);
(intr) to go hunting;
(refl.) to get to/into,
e.g. cacciarsi nei
guai = to get into
trouble
scacciare
to chase away, to throw out; to scatter
cadere
(intr aux essere) to
fall
decadere
(intr aux essere) to decline
ricadere
(intr aux essere)
to fall again; to
relapse, to
backslide; (fig, of
guilt, responsibility
etc.) to fall, to rest
scadere
(intr aux essere)
to expire; to fall
due; to decline (in
value)
cambiare
(tr) to change (gen);
(intr aux essere) to
change (gen);
(intr aux avere)
(R1–2) to change
gear;
(refl) to get changed
(clothes)
ricambiare
(tr) (usu) to repay, to
reciprocate (favours etc.);
also = to change again
scambiare
to trade, to swap; to mistake sth/sb for
sth/sb else (qc/qu per qc/qu altro)
71
2 Misleading similarities
chiudere
(tr) to close, to shut,
to lock up; to turn
off (tap);
(intr) to close
(schools, shops etc.);
to close properly
(doors, windows etc.)
richiudere
to close again
rinchiudere
to lock up (inside
somewhere)
schiudere
to open slightly
and slowly, to part
cogliere
to pick, to pluck; to
grasp; to catch, e.g.
cogliere di sorpresa
= to catch by
surprise; to hit, e.g.
cogliere nel segno
= to hit the target
(also fig)
accogliere
to receive, (sb); to accept
(sth)
raccogliere
to pick up (from the ground),
to pluck
(e.g. flowers, usu from the ground);
to pick,
to harvest (agricultural products);
to gather
colare
(tr) to filter; to drip,
to ooze (also intr
aux essere)
scolare
(tr) to drain, e.g. scolare la pasta
(intr aux essere) to drain, to drip
(R1, usu refl. to drink)
conciliare
to reconcile (= to
harmonize); to be
conducive to, e.g.
una musica che
concilia il sonno =
a music conducive to
sleep; to (agree to)
pay a fine on the spot
riconciliare
to reconcile (= to end a disagreement)
conservare
to save, to keep, to
preserve
preservare
to protect
contare
to count
raccontare
to tell, to recount
scontare (qc)
to discount; to deduct; to pay (the
penalty for sth)
correre
(tr) to run (races,
distances etc.),
to race;
(intr aux essere or
avere) to run (gen),
to race
discorrere
(intr) to talk, to converse
(with sb = con qu)
scorrere
(tr) to glance over
(intr aux essere) to flow; to glide; to
pass (of time)
72
2.5 Verbs with similar stems
ricorrere
(intr aux essere or
avere) to have
recourse, to resort (to
sb/sth = a qu/qc);
to occur (of
anniversaries etc.);
also = to run again,
to go back (also fig)
rincorrere
(tr) to chase, to run after
deferire (R2–3)
to defer (= to refer)
differire (R2–3)
(tr) to defer (= to postpone), to delay;
(intr) to differ
fondare
to found
sfondare
to break the bottom of sth, to wear (the bottom) out of sth; to crash
through, to burst open, e.g. sfondare la porta
gelare
(tr/intr aux essere)
to freeze (natural
phenomenon); (fig)
to horrify
congelare
(tr) to freeze (often
artificially, e.g. food; also fig,
of funds etc.)
surgelare
(tr) to freeze, to deep-freeze (only
food)
giudicare
to judge
aggiudicare
to award; to sell at auctions
pregiudicare
to jeopardize; to damage; to prejudice
gustare
to savour, to enjoy
(usu of food, drinks,
but also fig); to taste
degustare
to sample, to taste (food,
wine)
disgustare
to disgust (also fig)
ispirare
to inspire
inspirare (R2–3)
to breathe in
legare
to tie (up), to fasten;
to link
rilegare
(usu) to bind (books); also = to tie again
mantenere
to maintain, to keep;
to provide livelihood
sostenere
to support, to hold up (physically, morally); to bear (expenses, losses);
(tr/intr) to maintain, to assert
mollare
to slacken, to let go;
(R1) to give (slaps,
kicks etc.), e.g.
mollare uno
schiaffo
ammollare
to soak, to soften (by soaking); to slacken; (R1) to give (slaps, kicks
etc.), e.g. ammollare uno schiaffo
muovere
to move (tr, not
emotionally)
commuovere
to touch, to move (emotionally)
73
2 Misleading similarities
negare
to deny (sb sth = qc
a qu)
rinnegare
to repudiate, to disown
passare
(tr) to pass (gen); to
cross, to go through
(also fig, e.g. passare
un guaio); to
overtake; to supply; to
strain (food, drinks);
(intr aux essere) to
pass (by)
oltrepassare
to cross, to go beyond; to go
past (esp stationary objects,
people etc.); (fig) to exceed
ripassare
(tr) to cross again,
to pass again; to
review (studying);
(intr aux essere)
to pass (by) again
sorpassare
to overtake (esp
vehicles and other
moving objects,
people etc.); to
grow taller/higher
than sb/sth; (fig) to
exceed
pesare
(tr/intr aux
avere/essere) to
weigh; (fig) to be a
burden; (fig) to
matter
soppesare (R2–3)
(tr) to weigh up (esp fig = to value carefully in one’s mind)
porre
to put (R2–3, less
common than
mettere), to set
(down), e.g. porre
freno/dei limiti =
to set some limits, to
curb
comporre
to compose; to put together;
to constitute, to make up,
e.g. due giocatori
compongono la squadra
= two players make up the
team
scomporre
to disassemble, to
break down; to
upset
ricomporre
to reassemble
portare
to take, to bring, to
carry; to wear (of
clothes etc.)
sopportare
to bear, to endure, to tolerate
premere
to press, to push (e.g.
a button);
(intr) to press (against
sth/sb = contro
qc/qu); (R2–3) to
matter (a qu)
spremere
to squeeze (usu fruit, but
also fig of money etc.)
esprimere
to express (opinions, thoughts, feelings
etc.)
provare
to try; to test; to taste;
to prove
approvare
to approve (of sth = qc)
riprovare
to try again; to taste again; (R2–3) to
condemn
rubare (qc)
to steal (sth); to
commit burglary, to
be a thief
derubare (qu)
to rob (sb)
74
2.6 Gender paronyms
seguire
(tr) to follow;
(intr aux essere) to
follow, to come after
(sth/sb = a qc/qu)
conseguire
(tr) to achieve;
(intr aux essere)
to ensue
perseguire
to pursue; (R3) to
prosecute (legally)
proseguire
(tr/intr) to
continue, to go on
vegliare (R2–3)
to stay awake
svegliare
(tr) to wake up (tr)
note to wake up (intr) = svegliarsi
vendicare
to avenge, to revenge
rivendicare
to claim, to vindicate
venire
(intr aux essere) to
come
svenire
(intr aux essere) to faint
rivenire
(intr aux essere)
to come again
rinvenire
(tr) to find;
(intr aux essere)
to regain
consciousness
2.6 Gender paronyms
The gender difference dividing the following paronyms shows itself in the
distinct endings of the nouns in each set. A short list in nouns
distinguished only by gender (i.e. with identical endings) can be found in
section 14.5.5.
2.6.1 Gender paronyms with similar meanings
Masculine Feminine
animo
seat of intellect, will and
personality; courage
anima
soul
banco
long and narrow seat, pew; school
desk; counter, bench (for
working, testing etc.); bank (only
in specific cases, e.g. Banco di
Santo Spirito); note: banco
di sabbia = sand bank
banca
bank (financial institution in
general), e.g. vado in banca =
I’m going to the bank; la Banca
d’Italia
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
The gender of nouns is
given only where it is
not predictable from the
principles given in
ch. 14.
In some words, an
accent is used to
indicate the main stress
but should not be used
when writing. See
p. 29.
The usual Italian
pronunciation of foreign
words is given in
phonetic spelling in
square brackets
whenever appropriate.
75
2 Misleading similarities
Masculine Feminine
bilancio
balance sheet, budget
bilancia
weighing scales; la Bilancia =
Libra
botto
shot, crack, loud noise; botti (pl
R1–2) = fireworks; di botto =
suddenly
botta
blow (also fig = damage); crash
(noise); dare un sacco di botte
a qu (R1–2) = to give sb a
beating up
bozzo
bump, swelling
bozza
bump, swelling; draft, proof
br`ıciolo
(only s, fig) bit, scrap, e.g.
non ha un briciolo di cervello
(R1) = he/she doesn’t have any
brains
br`ıciola
crumb, left-over bit
buco
hole (gen), e.g. un cappotto
pieno di buchi = a coat full of
holes; il buco della serratura =
the keyhole
buca
hole (usu in the ground), e.g. un
strada piena di buche = a road
full of holes
note, however: buca delle
lettere = letter/mail box (hole);
buca del suggeritore =
prompter’s box; buca del
biliardo = pool table
pocket
calcolatore
calculator, computer
calcolatrice
calculator
canonico
canon (person)
canonica
parsonage
caramello
caramel
caramella
sweet (UK), lolly (Aus), candy
(US)
carico
loading; load
carica
charge (electrical; military);
office, position, rank
cassetto
drawer
cassetta
(small) case; cassette (video,
audio)
76
2.6 Gender paronyms
Masculine Feminine
cerchio
circle
cerchia (R3)
large, circular shaped structure,
e.g. cerchia di mura = circle of
walls, cerchia di montagne =
ring of mountains; set of people
bound by some kind of
relationship, e.g. una ristretta
cerchia di amici = a select
group of friends
cero
votive candle; large candle for
religious purposes, e.g. il cero
pasquale = the Paschal
Candle
cera
wax; polish (for shoes, floors,
wooden furniture)
corso
course; main street
corsa
race, run, rush
coscio
leg of larger butchered animals
coscia
thigh; leg of butchered animals
(gen)
covo
den, lair; hiding place (with
negative connotations)
cova (R3)
brooding, brooding place,
brooding time
critico
critic
critica
criticism, critique, review
fallo
foul (sport); (R2–3) mistake, fault;
(R3) phallus
falla
leak, hole (in ships, boats etc.),
also fig
foglio
sheet, leaf of paper
foglia
leaf
fosso
ditch; moat
fossa
hole in the ground; grave
frutto
piece of fruit; (fig) fruit, product,
earning, profit
frutta
fruit (collective, in general and as
part of a meal), e.g. frutta di
stagione = fruit in season,
essere alla frutta = to be at the
end of the meal (also [fig] = to
be well past one’s prime)
gambo
stem, stalk (flowers, mushrooms)
gamba
leg (humans, clothes, furniture)
77
2 Misleading similarities
Masculine Feminine
gelato
ice-cream
gelata
frost (a single occurrence of
frost, for instance during one
night)
goccio
drop (fig), a small amount of
liquid, e.g. un goccio di vino =
a very small amount of wine to
drink
goccia
drop (lit)
grano
wheat, grain (also measurement)
grana
(R1–2) trouble; (R1) dough
(money); (R3) grain (in
photographs)
note: il grana (padano) = a
hard cheese similar to Parmesan
legno
wood (material)
legna
firewood
modo
way, manner, method; mood
(gram.)
moda
fashion, e.g. alla moda = in
fashion, fashionable
moro
Moor; dark-skinned/haired man
mora
dark-skinned/haired woman,
brunette; mulberry, blackberry;
(R2–3) delay or default (in paying
rent, fees etc.), and also the related
penalty fee
morso
bite; morsel; bit (horse)
morsa
vice (tool); (fig) (vice-like) grip
palmo
(hand) span
palma
palm of the hand; palm tree
pendolo
pendulum
pendola
pendulum clock, grandfather
clock
peso
weight
pesa
weighing; weigh-house;
weigh-bridge
pezzo
piece, bit, fragment
pezza
piece of fabric, cloth, rag; patch
politico
politician
politica
politics, policy
78
2.6 Gender paronyms
Masculine Feminine
pozzo
well
pozza
puddle
regolo (calcolatore)
slide ruler
regola
rule
sinistro
(R2–3) accident; left punch/shot
(sport)
sinistra
left hand
stecco
twig, stick
stecca
picket (on a gate); whalebone
(corset); rib (umbrella); cue
(billiard); slat (shutters, fan); splint
(for fractured limbs); carton of
cigarettes; false note (esp singing,
as in prendere una stecca)
suolo
soil; ground
suola
sole (of shoes)
tavolato
plank floor; paneling
tavolata
group of people sitting at the
table for lunch/dinner together,
e.g. una tavolata di amici
terno
set of three winning numbers in
the game of lotto, e.g. vincere
un terno al lotto = to hit the
jackpot
terna (R2–3)
set of three, trio (not mus.)
terzino
fullback (football)
terzina (R2–3)
tercet (poetry); triplet (music)
2.6.2 Gender paronyms with different meanings
Masculine Feminine
arco
bow; arch; arc
arca
ark; (R2–3) sarcophagus
armo (R3)
crew (sailing, rowing)
arma
weapon
baleno
lightning
balena
whale
ballo
dance, ball
balla
bale; (R1) tall story
79
2 Misleading similarities
Masculine Feminine
bando (R2–3)
announcement, notice; ban
banda
band (musical, radio); gang; stripe
bombo (R3)
kind of bumble-bee
bomba
bomb
branco
group of animals (herd, flock
pack); (fig) bunch/pack of
persons (derogatory, e.g. branco
di idioti = bunch of idiots)
branca
claw, clutches; branch (also fig of
sciences, disciplines etc., e.g. una
branca della medicina = a
branch of medicine)
busto
bust; corset; bodice
busta
envelope
capriolo
roe deer, roebuck
capriola
(usu) somersault; (less frequent)
female roe deer
cartello
sign; placard; cartel (econ.)
cartella
briefcase, schoolbag; file, folder;
page
caso
fate, chance; case, instance; case
(gram.); fare caso a qc/qu = to
notice sth/sb
casa
home, house
collo
neck
colla
glue
colpo
blow, stroke, shot, e.g. bel
colpo! = good shot!
colpa
guilt; fault, e.g. `e colpa
tua = it’s your fault
costo
cost
costa
coast
fico
fig, fig tree
fica (R1∗)
cunt
filo
thread
fila
row, line, queue, e.g. fare la fila
= to queue (up), to line (up)
(US)
fisico
physicist; physique, body
fisica
physics
groppo (R2–3)
tangle; avere un groppo in gola
= to have a lump in one’s throat
groppa
back, rump; in groppa (a qu) =
on sb’s shoulders, on sb’s back
80
2.6 Gender paronyms
Masculine Feminine
lancio
launch, launching (of rockets,
missiles etc.; of products on the
market); throw, throwing (gen);
jump, drop (with a parachute);
introduction (of e.g. an actor)
lancia
launch (boat); lance, spear
limo (R3)
mud, slime, silt
lima
file (tool)
lotto
lotto, State lottery
lotta
fight, struggle; wrestling
manico
handle
manica
sleeve; la Manica = the English
Channel
mazzo
bundle, bunch; pack (cards)
mazza
cudgel; mace; club (golf ); bat
(baseball, cricket); stick (hockey)
mento
chin
menta
mint (herb)
mostro
monster; (R1) phenomenon, e.g.
`e un mostro! = he/she is a
phenomenon (= he/she is
incredibly good at something)
mostra
exhibition, show
moto
motion; movement; physical
exercise, e.g. fare un po’ di
moto = to take some exercise;
(R2–3) uprising
note: moto (f ) is short for
motocicletta = motorcycle
mota (R3)
mud
palo
post, pole; goal-post (sport)
pala
shovel; blade (propeller, oar)
panno
cloth
panna
cream
partito
(usu) party (politics)
partita
game, match (sport, cards); lot,
shipment, consignment
pianto
weeping, crying
pianta
plant (as in tree etc.)
81
2 Misleading similarities
Masculine Feminine
picco
peak, pinnacle
picca
pike; picche (only pl) = spades
(cards)
polpo
octopus
polpa
pulp
porto
port, harbour
porta
door
posto
place, spot; seat; position, job;
space, room, e.g. non c’`e posto
= there is no room
posta
post, mail
punto
point (gen); dot; full stop, period;
stitch
punta
point, tip, sharp end; touch, trace;
(fig) peak, maximum level; ora di
punta = rush hour
pupillo
(R2–3) favourite; (R3) ward,
pupil
pupilla
pupil (eye) (also = feminine of
pupillo)
raspo
grape-stalk
raspa
rasp
razzo [raddzo]
rocket
razza [raddza]
(sting-)ray
note: razza [rattsa] = race,
breed; sort, kind
romanzo
(n) novel;
(adj) Romance
romanza
romanza
scalo
port, airport; stop-over, e.g. volo
senza scalo = non-stop flight
scala
stairs, staircase, ladder; scale (mus.
and fig); straight, run (cards)
tasso
rate, e.g. tasso d’interesse =
interest rate; badger
tassa
tax, fee
testo
text
testa
head
tetto
roof
tetta (R1∗-1)
tit
tormento
torment
tormenta
blizzard, snowstorm
82
2.7 Deceptive minimal pairs
Masculine Feminine
t `orto
wrong; avere torto = to be
(in the) wrong
t ´orta
cake
velo
veil (also fig); thin layer (of sugar,
dust etc.)
vela
sail
2.7 Deceptive minimal pairs
For the English-speaking person the differences separating the paronyms
in this section can be difficult to hear and/or pronounce. They are:
(1) `e [ε] vs ´e [e]
(2) `o [ɔ] vs ´o [o]
(3) single vs double consonant
(4) position of the stress
With the obvious exception of (3), in most cases these differences do not
show in the written language. Furthermore, all of them, including (3),
often disappear, according to different patterns, in regional varieties of
spoken Italian (cf. section 1.6). Nevertheless, the advanced student of
Italian should be aware of their existence in the standard variety, since to
overlook them could lead to confusion, as shown by the tables below.
While the pronunciation of some words has been given in square brackets,
it should be recalled that the conventional rules on written stresses have
been applied to all Italian words in bold.
Minimal pairs that are less likely, in context, to lead to misunderstanding
have been excluded: hence the absence of sets of paronyms containing a
verb and a word from a different category (noun etc.), e.g. mente
[mεnte], from mentire, to lie, and mente [mente] (f ), mind; `e [ε], from
essere he/she/it is, and e [e], conjunction, and; ho [ɔ], from avere, I have,
and o [o], conjunction, or. An exception has been made for the
single/double consonant group, since native speakers are on the whole
more sensitive to this type of opposition, and less ‘forgiving’ towards
mispronounced words of this kind.
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
The gender of nouns is
given only where it is
not predictable from the
principles given in
ch. 14.
In some words, an
accent is used to
indicate the main stress
but should not be used
when writing. See
p. 29.
The usual Italian
pronunciation of foreign
words is given in
phonetic spelling in
square brackets
whenever appropriate.
83
2 Misleading similarities
Table 2.7.1 `e vs ´e
`e [ε] ´e [e]
pesca [pεska]
peach
pesca [peska]
fishing
venti [vεnti]
winds (pl of vento)
venti [venti]
twenty
re [rε]
D (musical note)
re [re]
king
t`e (the) [tε]
tea
te [te]
you
Table 2.7.2 `o vs ´o
`o [ɔ] ´o [o]
botte [bɔtte]
blows (pl of botta)
botte [botte] (f )
cask, barrel
colto [kɔlto]
picked-up; plucked; caught (p.p.
of cogliere)
colto [kolto]
well educated, learned
corso [kɔrso]
Corsican
corso [korso]
course; main street
dotto [dɔtto]
learned
dotto [dotto]
(R3) duct
foro [fɔro]
forum
foro [foro]
hole
torta [tɔrta]
twisted (f p.p. of torcere)
torta [torta]
cake
In view of the point made above, the very small number of Italian words
differing only in the pronunciation of s [s/z] or z [t/dz] has not been
included.
For some consonants, minimal pairs of this kind do not exist; for others
they are very few and of such a nature that they cannot be a source of
confusion. This explains why they are not represented in the following list.
Minimal pairs do not exist for the letters z and for the groups gl, gn, sc.
With regard to the spoken language, it should be pointed out that by
taking into account contextual elements – such as, for instance, the
definite article – new sets of potentially misleading “pairs” can be
generated, e.g. l’arena (the arena) – la renna (the reindeer).
The phenomenon exemplified in table 2.7.4 can be observed in a
number of verbal forms, as a regular feature of the first conjugation:
1 s present indicative vs 3 s passato remoto (e.g. amo, I love, vs am`o,
he/she/it loved);
84
2.7 Deceptive minimal pairs
and also in forms from different verbs, e.g.:
capito [kapito], capit `o [kapitɔ], both from capitare, to happen,
and capito [kapito] from capire, to understand.
The semantic pattern seen below in the two forms of bisbiglio and
gorgheggio applies also to other less common words.
Table 2.7.3 Single vs double consonant
Single consonant Double consonant
ano
anus
anno
year
avito
(R3) ancestral
avvito
I screw (in/down) (from avvitare)
baco
caterpillar, grub
Bacco
Bacchus
cade
he/she/it falls (from cadere)
cadde
he/she/it fell (from cadere)
camino
chimney
cammino
journey, walk; path; way
caro
dear
carro
cart, waggon, chariot
casa
house, home
cassa
crate
col`erico
related to cholera, choleric
coll`erico
hot-tempered, angry
coma (m)
coma
comma (m R2–3)
sub-section (leg.)
copia
copy; (R3) abundance
coppia
couple
dici
you say (2 s pres. indic dire)
dicci
tell us (2 s imperative dire)
loto
lotus
lotto
lotto, State lottery
luci
lights (pl of luce [f ])
lucci
pikes (fish) (pl of luccio)
mora
dark-skinned/haired woman,
brunette; mulberry, blackberry;
(R2–3) delay or default (in paying
rent, fees etc.), and also the related
penalty fee
morra
morra (game)
85
2 Misleading similarities
Table 2.7.3 (cont.)
Single consonant Double consonant
nono/-a
ninth
nonno/-a
grandfather/grandmother
note
notes (pl of nota)
notte (f )
night
pala
shovel
palla
ball
papa (m)
Pope
pappa
mush, child’s food
tufo
tufa (rock)
tuffo
dive; dip
Table 2.7.4 Position of tonic stress
ambito [ambito]
circumscribed space; (fig) scope,
circle
ambito (R2–3) [ambito]
(p.p. of ambire) coveted
balia [balia]
wet nurse
balia (R3) [balia]
power, usu in the expression in
balia di qu/qc (R2) = in the
hands of sb, at the mercy of sth
bisbiglio [bizbio]
whisper
bisbiglio [bizbiio]
frequent, continuous whispering
calamita [kalamita]
magnet (also fig)
calamit`a [kalamita]
calamity, disaster
casino [kasino]
(R1–2) brothel; (R1∗-1) mess,
confusion, racket
casin `o [kasinɔ]
casino
compito [kompito]
task, homework
compito (R2–3) [kompito]
usu well-mannered, polite, but
also completed (from compire)
cupido (R3) [kupido]
covetous, greedy; lustful
Cupido, cupido [kupido]
Cupid; any image of Cupid, putto
formica [fɔrmika]
Formica
formica [formika]
ant
gorgheggio [ or eddo]
trill, trilling (in singing); warble
gorgheggio [ or eddio]
continuous trill/warble
maneggio [maneddo]
handling; riding ground
maneggio [maneddio]
bustling, fussing about
86
2.8 Other types of misleading similarities
Table 2.7.4 (cont.)
meta [mεta]
goal, destination
met`a [meta]
half
nocciolo [nɔttʃolo]
stone, kernel, pip
nocciolo [nottʃɔlo]
hazel-nut tree
papa (m) [papa]
Pope
pap`a (m) [papa]
daddy
para (f ) [para] (R2–3)
Para (type of rubber, commonly
used for shoe soles)
par`a (m) [para]
paratrooper
pattino [pattino]
(roller-)skate, (ice-)skater
pattino [pattino]
small craft with two hulls,
propelled by oars, used mostly for
pleasure
principi [printʃipi]
princes (from principe)
principi [printʃipi]
principles (from principio)
retina [rεtina]
retina
retina [retina]
small net, hairnet
scia [ʃia]
wake, trail (of boats etc., also fig)
sci`a [ʃa]
Shah
Sofia [sɔfja]
Sofia, Sofiya (capital of Bulgaria)
Sofia [sofia]
Sophia, Sophie (name of person)
2.8 Other types of misleading similarities
The above misleading similarities between Italian and English are of a
superficial kind. In some cases, however, the danger lurks at a deeper level,
hidden in the apparently similar semantic structure of words or expressions
in the two languages. The following examples should suffice to keep the
student on the alert.
English Italian Italian English
at large in libert`a;
(= at length) per esteso,
diffusamente
al largo
alla larga
offshore
(fig); with verbs like stare
or tenersi = (to keep)
away from sth/sb, e.g.
stare alla larga da
qu/qc = to stay clear of
sb/sth; alla larga! (R1) =
keep (it) away!
87
2 Misleading similarities
English Italian Italian English
at length esaurientemente,
per esteso;
(= finally) alla fine
a lungo
alla lunga
for a long time
in the long run
big head to have a big head =
essere presuntuoso
testone blockhead; stubborn
downhill (lit) (gi `u) a valle, in
discesa
but (fig) to go downhill =
andare in
declino/sempre peggio,
e.g. since then it’s been
downhill, for him = da
allora le cose sono
andate sempre peggio,
per lui
in discesa (lit) downhill
but (fig) da allora `e
stato tutto (or la strada
`e stata tutta) in
discesa, per lui (R1–2)
= since then everything
has been easy, for him
horny (= horned) cornuto;
(= made of horn) di
corno;
(skin) incallito;
(= sexually excited)
assatanato (R1), arrapato
(R1), eccitato
sessualmente, lascivo
(R3)
cornuto (R1∗-1, usu) cuckold,
betrayed; (lit R3) horned
note: to avoid
misunderstanding, the
expression con le corna
is used for the literal
meaning
point-blank (adj/adv) (lit, of shooting)
a bruciapelo; (fig) senza
mezzi termini
di punto
in bianco
suddenly, unexpectedly,
out of the blue
88
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
Real synonyms – in the sense of unconditionally interchangeable words
with the same meaning – are very rare in Italian as in other languages.
Consequently, when looking for the Italian counterpart of an English
term in a dictionary, students are usually confronted with a list of words or
expressions that are not perfectly equivalent. This section highlights these
differences of meaning or use in a number of common “semantic fields,”
which have been listed according to their English heading.
In some cases, the cells containing the most common Italian words for a
particular heading have been highlighted.
accident
incidente (m)
disgrazia
contrattempo
intoppo
impediment
imprevisto
unforeseen
difficulty
infortunio
unfortunate
event; sport
injury
sinistro (R3 esp
insurance)
harmful event
scontro
collision
sventura
sciagura
disastro
calamità
catàstrofe (f )
often due to
natural causes,
usu many people
affected
minor ← → serious
R1* vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
The gender of nouns is
given only where it is
not predictable from the
principles given in
ch. 14.
In some words, an
accent is used to
indicate the main stress
but should not be used
when writing. See
p. 29.
The usual Italian
pronunciation of foreign
words is given in
phonetic spelling in
square brackets
whenever appropriate.
89
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
to agre e
with somebody
to be in agreement (with sb on sth) essere d’accordo (con qu su qc)
convenire (con qu su qc) (R2-3)
to come to an agreement (with sb on sth) mettersi d’accordo (con qu su qc)
accordarsi (con qu su qc)
to get along (with sb) andare d’accordo (con qu)
to suit (sb) (gen)
to be good for sb’s health
confarsi (a qu) (R3); addirsi (a qu) (R3)
far bene (a qu); giovare (a qu) (R2-3)
to something
to consent (to sth) acconsentire (a qc)
of things
to correspond (to sth)
to tally (with sth)
to agree (with sth) (gram.)
corrispondere (a qc)
concordare (con qc)
concordare (con qc) BUT agreement
(gram.) = accordo
to agree + infinitive
to agree to do sth (two or more people)
to accept to do sth
to consent to do sth
concordare di fare qc
accettare di fare qc
acconsentire di /a fare qc
to agree + clause
to agree that … (two or more people)
to accept that …
to admit that …
to consent that …
concordare che …
accettare che …
ammettere che …
acconsentire che …
90
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
to annoy
R1∗ R1 R2 R3
dar fastidio (a qu)
dare noia (a qu)
to annoy
seccare
to bother
disturbare
to disturb
importunare,
incomodare,
recare
disturbo/fastidio
(a qu)
to inconvenience
rompere (le scatole) (a qu)
to annoy intensely
infastidire
to pester
molestare
to harass
irritare,
innervorsire
to get on sb’s nerves
rompere le palle/i
coglioni/il cazzo
(a qu)
to annoy profoundly,
to give (sb) the shits,
to piss sb off
scocciare
to bother, to pester
affliggere
to afflict (also fig), to trouble
tormentare
to torture (esp fig)
to get angry
R1∗ R1 R2 R3
arrabbiarsi
perdere la pazienza
to lose one’s patience
perdere le staffe
to lose one’s temper
incavolarsi,
incacchiarsi
infuriarsi,
imbestialirsi,
andare su tutte le
furie
to get furious
adirarsi
incazzarsi andare in bestia
to get furious
indignarsi
to become indignant
91
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
appearance (see also face)
external appearance apparenza
usu of things
aspetto
bearing portamento (R2-3)
look aria
usu of persons: air, demeanour
look [luk] (m R1-2)
in terms of fashion
act of appearing comparsa apparizione (R2-3)
supernatural
appearance in court comparizione (R3)
publication pubblicazione uscita
to ask
question demand or request
to ask chiedere qc a qu (sb for sth)
di + inf (to do sth)
a qc di + inf (sb to do sth)
che + subj (that ...)
to ask officially (as in
writing), to apply
(for sth)
fare richiesta/domanda (R2-3)
a qu/presso qu (R3) (to sb)
di/per qc (for sth)
to request richiedere (as chiedere)
to request urgently sollecitare (R3)
qc da parte di qu (sth by sb)
qu a + inf (to urge sb to
do sth)
to claim rivendicare (R2-3), reclamare (R2-3)
to demand esigere, pretendere
qc da qu (sth from sb)
di + inf (to do sth)
che + subj (that …)
chiedere qc a qu
to ask sb sth
domandare qc a qu
to ask sb sth
fare/porre (R3) una
domanda (a qu)
to ask (sb) a question
interrogare
to question, to interrogate;
to test orally at school
to beg sb to do sth pregare qu di + inf
supplicare, scongiurare, implorare
(R2-3) (constructed as pregare, but
stronger in meaning)
92
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
back (n)
of persons schiena, dorso (R2-3)
spalle (f pl) (lit ‘shoulders’) esp in fig expressions, e.g. alle/dietro le
spalle di qu = behind sb’s back
of animals schiena
of pack animals groppa (on sb’s back = in groppa a qu)
of hands dorso BUT backhand (sport) = rovescio
of coins, fabric etc. rovescio
of pages etc retro (only s, R3)
of clothes dietro (only s), didietro (usu s); BUT back to front/inside out = alla
rovescia
of houses, shops etc retro (only s, R2-3), dietro (only s), didietro (usu s), parte (f )
posteriore
of chairs etc schienale (m), spalliera
of interiors fondo
in sports difensore
ball
general palla
ball
sfera (R2-3)
sphere
pallone (m)
football, basketball etc
ALSO pallone
(aerostatico) = air
balloon
palloncino
balloon
pallina
small ball,
e.g. pallina da ping
pong
sport
and
games
bilia/biglia
billiard ball, marble
boccia
bowl
boccino, pallino
jack
body
parts
bulbo/globo oculare (R3)
eye-ball
coglione (m R1∗)
palla (R1∗-1)
testìcolo (R2-3)
testicle
globo (R2-3)
globe
il globo terrestre (R2-3)/
terracqueo (R3)
the globe
palla di fucile/pistola,
pallòttola, proièttile (m)
bullet
palla (di cannone)
cannon ball
specific
other
cuscinetto (a sfera) (R3)
ball-bearing
gomìtolo
ball of wool
93
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
beautiful
general
R1∗ R1 R2 R3
bello
carino
nice, cute, pretty
figo/fico grazioso
pretty, cute
leggiadro
fair, graceful
particular meanings
pleasant R1 R2 R3
piacevole
gradevole
ameno
usu of places
very beautiful
bellissimo
magnifico
magnificent
meraviglioso
wonderful
mirabile
wondrous
stupendo
stupendous
splendido
splendid
incantevole
delightful
delizioso
delightful, very pretty
ALSO delicious
attractive
persons/things attraente
affascinante
charming, fascinating
seducente
seductive
ammaliante
bewitching
only persons avvenente
attractive
formoso
shapely
piacente
likeable
only things allettante
tempting
behind, backside
R1∗ R1 R2 R3
bottom culo
arse, ass
sedere
didietro (usu s)
fondo schiena,
posteriore
deretano
buttocks chiappe (f pl)
nàtiche (f pl) glùtei (m pl)
big
big, great (dimensions; importance, excellence, cf. 18.4) grande
big, large (mass or volume; importance) grosso
boat
barca
boat
nave (f )
ship
barca a vela/barca a motore
sailing boat/motorboat
nave da guerra/nave passeggeri
warship/liner
bastimento (old fashioned)
ship, cargo-ship
vascello (R2-3)
vessel, (war)ship (usu old type, with sails)
veliero
sailing ship
legno (R3)
ship (usu old type, wooden, with sails, oars)
battello
boat
battello pneumatico (R2-3)/battello a vapore
inflatable boat/steamboat
imbarcazione (R2-3)
craft
transatlantico
(transatlantic) liner
traghetto
ferry
canotto (R1-2)
inflatable boat
motoscafo
motorboat
canoa
canoe
fuoribordo
outboard motorboat
lancia (R2-3)
launch
scialuppa di salvataggio
lifeboat
vaporetto
motor boat for public
transport (esp in
Venice)
small ← → large
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
bottle
general bottiglia
bottiglietta
small bottle
bottiglione (m)
large bottle
specific fiasco
glass container, usu for wine, with a
narrow neck and the round bottom
externally covered with straw or
other fibres that allow it to stand
fiasca/fiaschetta
flask, usu glass or leather, flat in
shape, once used also for gunpowder
borraccia
water-bottle, canteen
biberon (m) [bibe'rɔn]
baby bottle
boccetta
small bottle, usu glass, for perfume
etc
ampolla (R3)
cruet (esp for oil and vinegar);
ampulla
flacone (m R2-3)
small bottle, usu for medicine,
perfume or cosmetic
boy, girl
There is a wealth of regional or local words meaning “child,” “boy,” “girl.” They are
very often used at the lower registers.
/-a
son/daughter
bambino/-a
baby, child
ragazzo/-a
boy/girl
neonato/-a
newborn baby
lattante (m/f )
(suckling) baby
pupo/-a (R1-2
Roman)
bimbo/-a (R2-3)
baby, child
adolescente
(m/f R2-3)
adolescent
signorina
young lady
poppante (m/f )
(suckling) baby; (R1)
whippersnapper
teen-ager (m/f )
[ti'neder]
teenager
giovanotto
young man
piccino/-a (R1-2)
piccolo/-a
baby, small child
(R1-2)
fanciullo/-a (R3)
pàrgolo/-a (R3)
fantolino/-a (R3)
frugoletto/-a (R3)
child
garzone (m)
shop boy;
(R3) boy
giovane (m/f )
young man/woman
bebè (m)
baby
creatura
child, creature
infante (m/f R3)
infant, baby
ragazzino/-a
young boy/girl
moccioso/-a (R1-2)
(snotty) child
(insulting)
monello
street urchin
ragazzaccio/-a
bad boy/girl
figlio
marmocchio
younger ← → older
96
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
to break (tr) (see also to damage; to de stroy)
Those verbs whose reflexive form provides the corresponding intransitive meaning are followed by
(-si) (see also section 24.5).
R1 R2 R3
general rompere (-si)
specific spezzare (-si)
to break (up), e.g. spezzare il pane = to break the bread
spaccare (-si)
to crack open, to split, to cleave
fare a pezzi
to break/cut/pull/tear to pieces
spezzettare
to break/cut/chop into pieces
sminuzzare
to break/cut/chop into small pieces
sfasciare (-si)
to wreck, to shatter
schiantare (-si)
to smash (violently)
scassare (-si)
to break, to smash, usu
of mechanical
contraptions (car,
bicycle, clock etc.)
incrinare (-si)
to crack, to produce a crack in sth
fracassare (-si)
to smash, to shatter
infrangere (-si)
to shatter (esp of glass),
to break (fig, a
promise, a rule etc.)
frantumare (-si)/mandare in frantumi
to smash (to pieces), to shatter
97
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
to climb
transitive (AUX avere) intransitive (AUX essere)
salire limited to very few do, eg
salire le scale = to climb/to go up
the stairs
salire i gradini = to climb the
steps
absolute or followed by a destination
= to go/come/get up, to rise (also
of prices, temperature etc.)
salire su qc = to climb (on) sth
arrampicarsi arrampicarsi (su qc) = to climb
(sth), eg a mountain, a tree etc
montare (R2-3) same as salire, with the addition of
animals (e.g. horses) as possible do
(= to ride, to mount)
montare (usu followed by a
destination) = to get up, to
climb on sth, esp animals (= to
mount, to ride)
montare su qc = to climb (on) sth
scalare (R2-3) (usu mountains) = to ascend
ALSO (R3) = to climb with ladders,
to scale (walls etc.)
ascendere (R3) (rare, usu mountains) = to ascend only in expressions like
ascendere al/in cielo = to ascend
into heaven
ascendere al trono = to ascend
the throne
competition
competizione
competition (usu not abstr.),
contest (gen, often sport)
concorrenza
economic competition
ALSO: la concorrenza = the
competition, i.e. the
competitors
rivalità
competition (abstract), rivalry
concorso
competition (usu test or exam) for a job
also concorso ippico = horse jumping
contest
concorso di bellezza = beauty contest
concorso a premi = advertising
competition (with prizes)
gara
contest (usu sports), race (of all kinds)
also gara d’appalto = tender for contract
fare a gara = to vie with each other
partita
match (most ball games, eg football, tennis etc)
game (cards and most board games)
incontro
match (most ball games; boxing, fencing)
98
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
crime
crimine (m)
serious crime (gen)
delitto
serious crime, often murder;
also fig = real pity
reato (R2-3 leg)
crime, offence
misfatto (R3)
crime, misdeed (gen)
colpa
fault (both abstract and
concrete);
ALSO = guilt; blame
dare la colpa a qu di qc =
to blame sb for sth
peccato
sin
infrazione (R3 leg)
infraction, breach
contravvenzione
(R3 leg) infringement, offence
(R1-2) fine
trasgressione (R3 leg)
transgression
violazione (R2-3 leg)
violation, infringement
inosservanza (R3 leg)
failure to comply with given laws/rules
fallo
foul, fault (sport)
ALSO es:sere in fallo (R3) = to be at fault
cadere in fallo (R3) = to err
cogliere in fallo qu (R2-3) = to catch sb out
99
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
to cut
to cut (gen) tagliare
to cut down (trees)
(figurative)
abbattere to cut down (of trees)
ridurre to reduce, to cut down (fig, esp econ.)
to cut into incidere to cut into, to carve, to engrave; ALSO to record (e.g.
incidere un disco)
intagliare to carve, to engrave
to cut off (gen)
(body parts)
(tips)
(branches)
mozzare (R2-3) to chop off (with one sharp blow), also of body
parts as a punishment, e.g. mozzare il capo;
ALSO (fig): da mozzare il fiato (used as adj) = breathtaking
troncare (R2-3) to chop off, to snap off, to truncate
recidere (R3) to cut off
amputare (R2-3) to amputate, to cut off body parts (med.)
mutilare (R2-3) to mutilate, to cut sb’s limbs/body parts, violently
or by accident
spuntare to cut the tip off, to trim, to clip (esp of hair, plants)
potare to prune
to cut short accorciare to shorten (gen)
abbreviare (R2-3) to shorten (with reference to time)
to cut through fendere (R3) (usu present or imperfect) to cleave, to cut through, to
plough through
to cut up in to bits
into slices
into sections
tritare to chop up, to mince
tagliuzzare (R1-2) to cut into small bits, to chop up
trinciare (R2-3) to cut into bits, to chop (up)
affettare to cut into slices, to slice
tranciare (R3) to cut into large slices (usu fish);
ALSO: to cut in a sharp and decisive way
sezionare to divide into sections; also: (R3 med.) to dissect
dissecare (R3 med.) to dissect
to cut = to mow
to cut = to shave
to cut = to shear
falciare to cut grass, hay etc; ALSO (fig) = to mow down, to kill
radere to shave (tr; intr = radersi)
rasare (R2-3) to shave (tr; intr = rasarsi);
ALSO: to level out (hedge), to mow (lawn)
tosare to shear (sheep etc);
ALSO: to mow
100
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
to damage, to spoil (see also to break; to distroy)
danneggiare: to damage
sciupare to ruin, to spoil deteriorare (R3) to deteriorate, to
damage
general
guastare (R2-3) to ruin, to spoil, usu
in an abstract sense; ALSO (with
mechanical devices as do): to
break
alterare to change for the worse;
ALSO to change
deformare to deform storpiare to cripple, to disfigure;
ALSO (fig) to pronounce badly
shape or aspect
sfigurare (R2-3) to disfigure deturpare (R3) to deface
food adulterare (R3) to adulterate, to alter
(usu foodstuffs, eg wine) for
personal advantage; often used in
the past participle as an adjective
avariare (R3) to spoil (usu food, with
external agents as subjects, e.g.
heat, humidity etc.); past participle
often used as an adjective
character viziare to spoil (e.g. a child) corrompere to corrupt
on purpose sabotare (R2-3) to sabotage
= to harm nuocere a qu/qc (R2-3) to damage sb/sth, to harm sb/sth
101
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
to de feat, to beat, to win
vincere (intr/tr)
to win (gen), used intransitively or with a do referring to the “context” of the victory eg la
guerra, or the prize e.g. la medaglia d’oro or , less frequently, the opponent (usu abstract)
e.g. la paura (in the case of persons contro qu is more common)
battere qu/qc
to beat sb/sth (opponent, record; in sport, games, contests etc, but usu not war);
also: to hit; to serve (sport)
sconfiggere qu/qc (R2-3)
to defeat sb/sth (often in war, but also in sport, and fig, e.g. il male)
trionfare (su qu/qc)
to triumph
(over sb/sth)
avere la meglio
(su qu/qc)
to come off better
(against sb/sth)
stravincere (intr/tr) (R1-2)
to win/to beat hands down (usu in sport,
games, contests), constructed as vincere
piegare qu (R2-3)
to subdue sb;
also (lit R2) to fold, to bend (usu qc)
stracciare qu (R1)
to lick sb (sport, games, contests);
also (lit R2) to tear (paper, fabric etc)
sgominare qu (R2-3)
sbaragliare qu (R2-3)
to put to flight, usu militarily, with plural or
collective nouns as do
sottomettere qu
to subdue sb, to bring sb under one’s control
assoggettare qu (R2-3)
soggiogare qu (R3)
to subjugate sb
conquistare qc
to conquer sth (e.g. territory, a city etc) militarily or with the use of force;
also to achieve sth through hard work
note: conquistare qu = to win sb over, to win sb’s love
weaker ← → stronger
102
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
to destroy (see also to break; to damage)
general distruggere
to demolish demolire to demolish (building etc.)
far crollare qc to cause sth to collapse (also with hostile intentions)
buttar giù (R1-2) to pull down (building, tree etc.)
abbattere to pull down (wall, tree etc.)
smantellare (R2-3) to dismantle
to raze radere al suolo to raze to the ground
spianare to flatten, to raze to the ground; also to level
to lay waste devastare
to undo disfare
to annihilate annichilire/annichilare (R 3), annientare
disintegrare (R2-3) to disintegrate (tr)
polverizzare (R2-3) to pulverize
incenerire to incinerate, to reduce to ashes
sterminare to exterminate (living creatures)
103
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
dirty
sporco dirty, also fig, morally dirty, e.g. denaro sporco (fruit of
unlawful activities); indecent (shows, jokes etc.)
lercio filthy (stronger than sporco), also fig, morally dirty
sudicio dirty, also fig, indecent, morally dirty
sozzo ['sottso] (R2-3), zozzo ['tsottso] (R1, Center, South)
dirty; (fig) indecent (usu shows, jokes)
lurido (R2-3) filthy (stronger than sporco), also fig, morally filthy,
indecent
immondo (R3) filthy (stronger than sporco), often fig, morally
filthy
lordo (R3) soiled, also fig, morally dirty
general
sordido (R3) dirty, also fig, sordid, base, mean
specific: soiled, stained macchiato stained, spotted infangato muddy
insanguinato blood-stained inquinato polluted
unto oil-stained, greasy
bisunto usu reinforces the
above in the expression
unto e bisunto
impolverato dusty, covered
with dust (usu clothes,
persons, things)
polveroso dusty, full of dust
(usu places, e.g. room)
imbrattato (R2-3) soiled, esp with liquids (e.g. paint, mud)
disgusting schifoso (R1) disgustingly filthy, disgusting, also morally
morally dirty sconcio dirty (usu shows, jokes) indecente indecent (gen)
spinto dirty (shows, jokes) osceno very dirty, indecent
(shows, jokes, behaviour,
proposals); also awful
scurrìle (R3) scurrilous turpe (R3) morally filthy (gen)
104
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
dry
asciutto
dry, not wet
(gen, often with
a positive
connotation);
also (of
persons) lean, not
fat
secco
dry (climate,
places, also fig,
usu with a
negative
connotation);
also (of
persons) skinny;
(of plants) dead
arido
arid, dry
(climate, places,
also fig, e.g. il
cuore)
arso (R2-3)
dried up,
scorched (places,
also fig, e.g. la
gola)
riarso (R3)
parched (places,
and also fig, e.g.
la gola)
prosciugato, disseccato (R3)
dried up (lakes etc)
disidratato (R2-3)
dehydrated
weaker ← → stronger
to examine
esaminare
studiare
to study
controllare
to check
general
analizzare
to analyse
verificare
to verify
specific investigare
indagare
to investigate
ispezionare
(R2-3)
to inspect
perquisire
(R2-3)
to search (usu of
police)
perlustrare (R3)
to reconnoitre
scrutare (R3)
to scrutinize, to scan
valutare (R2-3)
vagliare (R3)
to evaluate, to weigh up
visitare
to examine medically
105
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
face (see also appearance)
part of body faccia (R1-2) also
meaning expression,
aspect
viso
volto (R2-3)
muso (animal) muzzle;
also (R1) (ugly) face
(often in idioms)
aspetto aspect espressione expression
cera the way sb’s face looks with reference to health, in set expressions, e.g.
hai una brutta cera (R1-2) you don’t look well
appearance,
expression
tratti (m pl R2-3), lineamenti (m pl R2-3), fisionomia (R2-3), fattezze
(f pl R3) features (of sb’s face)
surface faccia side, facet lato side superficie (f ) surface
perdere la faccia to lose face faccia tosta cheek (insolence)
fare una smorfia/boccaccia to pull a face
rompere il muso a qu (R1) to smash sb’s face
figurative,
idiomatic
fare/mettere il muso (R1) to pull a long face, to sulk
fat (of persons)
grasso
grassottello (R1-2), grassoccio plump
bene in carne (R1-2) well-covered
ben nutrito (R1-2) well fed
paffuto (R2-3) chubby
florido (R2-3) healthy, flourishing
pingue (R3) fat
ciccione (f -a, also n) (R1) fat
pesante heavy
grosso big
panciuto paunchy, also fig (e.g. pots)
corpulento (R2-3) corpulent, bulky
obeso (R3) obese
less (or euphemistic) ← → more
fire
fuoco
fire (also fig, passion etc.), gunfire
incendio
large destructive fire
falò
bonfire
rogo
stake; also (R2-3) large
destructive fire
pira (R3)
(funeral) pyre, stake
ardore (R2-3), passione
passion
stufa
stove, heating appliance
106
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
fortune, luck, chance
bad luck good luck
caso
fate; also accident, event, case
destino
fate, destiny
fato (R2-3)
fate
sorte (f R2-3)
fate, destiny
sfortuna
mala/cattiva sorte (R2-3)
scalogna (R1)
iella (R1, Center, South)
sfiga (R1∗-1, North)
fortuna
buona sorte (R2-3)
provvidenza (godsend)
culo (R1∗ )
note the expressions:
avere sfortuna/scalogna (R1)/iella
(R1)/sfiga (R1∗-1) to be unlucky
note the expressions:
avere fortuna/culo (R1∗) to be lucky
fuel (liquid)
liquid fuel (gen) carburante (m)
combustible combustibile (m/adj R2-3) (liquid, solid, gaseous)
propellant propellente (m/adj R3) (liquid, solid)
oil lubricant, cooking olio
petroleum petrolio
crude petrolio greggio, greggio
kerosene cherosene (m)
diesel oil; fuel oil (for heating) gasolio, nafta
petrol, gasoline benzina
unleaded benzina verde/senza piombo
super/premium benzina super, super (f R1-2)
107
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
gate
cancello garden gate cancellata imposing gate, with railings
barriera barrier; major motorway
entrance/exit
sbarra movable barrier (eg level crossing);
also bar (metal/wood)
casello motorway entrance/exit porta gate of a city (if gen, usu plural)
entrata entrance uscita exit; boarding gate (airport)
gift
present
general regalo present, gift
pensiero (R1) present, gift; un pensierino (R1) = a little something, a
little gift
dono (R2-3) gift presente (m R3) present
specific
for Christmas strenna (natalizia/di Natale) (R2-3) Christmas present
commercial omaggio gift, often commercial, e.g. in omaggio = as a (free) gift,
complimentary; also = tribute
legal donazione (R3 leg) legal gift, legal donation
offerta offering, donation
elemòsina alms; fare/dare l’elemosina = to give alms
òbolo (R3) (small) donation; l’obolo di San Pietro = Peter’s pence
elargizione (R3) generous donation; fare elargizioni (R3) = to give
generously
donation
note the common expressions:
chiedere la carità = to beg; fare la carità = to give alms
natural gift
talento talent dono (R2-3) natural gift dote (f R2-3) endowment;
also dowry
108
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
to give
general dare
specific
as a present donare (R2-3)
to donate
regalare
to give as a present
elargire (R3)
to give generously
to grant concedere
to grant, to allow, to concede
accordare
to grant
to offer offrire
to offer
porgere (R3)
to offer; also (R2-3) to pass
to provide provvedere (R2-3) qu di qc
fornire qu/qc di qc
to provide sb with sth
fornire qc a qu
to provide sth for sb
dotare qu/qc di qc
to endow sb with sth
to equip sth with sth
to surrender cedere
to give up, to hand over, to surrender; also (R2-3) to sell, to legally
transfer rights, property, shares etc.
to deliver consegnare
to deliver; also to hand in
recapitare (R2-3)
to deliver (esp mail, parcels etc)
assegnare
to assign, to award
aggiudicare
to award, to adjudge
to award,
to bestow
attribuire
to award, to assign; also to
attribute, to ascribe
conferire (R3)
to confer, to bestow
to entrust affidare qc a qu
to entrust sth to sb; affidare un incarico = to assign a task
to administer somministrare (R3)
to give medicines, sacraments
sbolognare (R1)
to palm off (counterfeit notes
etc., on sb = a qu); to get rid (of
useless things, of annoying
persons)
affibbiare (R1)
appioppare (R1)
to give unpleasant things, e.g.
slaps, kicks, fines, nicknames,
burdens, responsibilities;
to palm off (counterfeit notes
etc., on sb = a qc)
unpleasant
things
rifilare (R1)
to palm off (counterfeit notes etc.);
to give (a slap, a kick)
mollare (R1)
to deal (slaps, kicks)
burdens accollare qc a qu
to saddle sb with sth (burdens,
responsibilities, expenses etc); to
lay on sb the responsibility for sth
addossare qc a qu
to lay on sb the responsibility/the
blame for sth
109
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
glass (see also window)
substance vetro
glass (gen)
cristallo
crystal;
also pane of glass, plate glass
bicchiere
glass
calice (m R3)
goblet; chalice
boccale (m R2-3)
tankard, jug
coppa (R3)
goblet, drinking cup; also (R2)
cup ( = prize)
for drinking
note: all these vessels can be made of different materials, e.g.
bicchiere di carta/plastica = paper/plastic cup
occhiali (m pl)
glasses, spectacles
binocolo
binoculars, field glasses
for looking through
lente (f) (d’ingrandimento)
(magnifying) lens/magnifying glass
for other uses clessidra
hour glass, sand glass
110
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
to grow, to increase (intr)
All the following intransitive verbs take essere as auxiliary
general crescere
to grow, to increase in size (natural process)
more abstract aumentare
to increase (quantity,
weight, extension,
price, temperature)
accrescersi (R3)
to grow, to increase
(quantity)
moltiplicarsi
to multiply, to increase
(quantity)
specific
to expand, to
extend
espandersi (R2-3)
to expand
estendersi (R2-3)
to extend
ampliarsi (R2-3)
to grow larger, to
extend
to get bigger ingrandirsi
(less common ingrandire)
to grow larger in dimensions, also fig
to expand commercially etc.
ingrossare/ingrossarsi
to grow larger (volume, mass); to
swell, to get fat
to get fatter ingrassare/ingrassarsi
to get dilated,
swollen
gonfiarsi
to swell (also of rivers etc.)
dilatarsi (R2-3)
to dilate; to expand (physics)
to get longer allungarsi
to lengthen (space or time), to grow
taller;
also to lie down
prolungarsi (R2-3)
to extend (space), to get longer
(time);
also to dwell at length on sth
to get wider allargarsi
to get wider, to widen, to spread
to get taller,
higher
alzarsi
to grow taller; to rise; also to get up
to grow up diventare grande (R1-2)
to grow up, to become an adult
venire su (R1)
to grow (persons, plants)
to develop svilupparsi
to develop
evolversi (R2-3)
to evolve
111
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
gun
general arma (pl armi)
weapon
arma da fuoco (R2-3)
fire-arm
specific
hand gun rivoltella
revolver (m R2-3)
revolver
pistola
pistol
machine-gun mitra (m)
fucile (m) mitragliatore (R3)
sub-machine-gun
mitragliatrice
(heavy) machine-gun
fucile (m)
gun, shotgun, rifle
carabina (R2-3)
rifle, carbine
doppietta
double barrelled gun
schioppo (R1-2)
rifle, shotgun
lupara
sawn-off shotgun
moschetto (R2-3)
musket
shotgun, rifle
trombone (m R3)
sawn-off shotgun
archibugio (R3)
(h)arquebus
spingarda (R3)
springald
cannon cannone (m)
cannon, large gun
mortaio
mortar
pezzo d’artiglieria
(R2-3)
piece of ordnance
112
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
hair
human animal
individual collective individual collective
capello (one) hair
(on head)
capelli (pl) hair
(on head)
capigliatura (R2-3),
chioma (R2-3) head
of hair
zazzera long hair
(on head)
pelo (one) hair (gen,
face and body)
peluria (R2-3) fine
hair cover, down
ciglia (f pl) eyelashes
sopracciglio
eyebrow
sopracciglia (f pl)
eyebrows
baffi (m pl)
moustache;
also baffo (R1-2)
half or whole
moustache
barba beard
pizzo goatee
ciglio eyelash
basette (f pl)
sideburns
favoriti (m pl)
muttonchops
pelo hair (gen)
sétola bristle
crine (m) horsehair
baffo whisker
pelo coat
pelliccia fur, coat
peluria (R2-3) fine
hair cover, down
mantello (R2-3)
coat
vello (R3) fleece
criniera mane;
also (fig) =
thick head of hair
113
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
handle
maniglia
handle (door, drawer etc.)
mànico
handle, shaft (often long in shape), for cutlery
(e.g. knife), tools (e.g. hammer), handbag,
umbrella, broom, shovel etc.
impugnatura (R2-3)
grip (racquets, whips, pistols, swords etc.)
manovella
crank, starting handle
manubrio
handlebar (bicycle etc.)
pomo, pomello (R2-3)
knob (doors, drawers, walking sticks etc.)
calcio (R2-3)
butt (rifle, pistol)
ansa (R3)
handle (vase, jug etc.)
elsa (R3)
hilt
heel
tallone (m)
heel (usu foot, but also sock)
calcagno (R2-3)
heel (usu foot, but also sock,
shoe, less common than
tallone)
tacco
heel (shoe)
to help
aiutare
dare una mano a qc (R1-2) to give sb a hand
assistere to assist, to attend (usu persons with health or social problems); to
help in a professional way (nurses, lawyers etc.)
soccorrere (R2-3), prestare soccorso a qc (R2-3) to help sb in
dangerous or difficult situations
general
coadiuvare (R3) to assist, to help
specific
sostenere to support (gen)
sorreggere (R2-3) to support physically or morally
to support
appoggiare to support, to back up
to co-operate collaborare (con qu a qc) (R2-3) to collaborate (with sb in sth)
cooperare (con qu a qc) (R2-3) to co-operate (with sb in sth)
to facilitate facilitare, agevolare (R2-3)
114
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
hill
whole, general
altura (R3) rise, height, hill, mountain
poggio (R3) hillock collina hill
colle (m R2-3) hill (often in
names; strictly speaking, less
than 600 meters high)
montagna mountain
monte (m) mountain (often
in names; strictly
speaking, more than
600 meters high)
whole, specific
picco (R2-3) peak massiccio (R3)
massif
duna (sand) dune dosso (R3) small hill
on roads
slope
discesa downhill slope salita uphill slope
china (R2-3),
pendìo (R2-3),
declivio (R3) slope,
declivity
pendice (f R2-3)
slope, side of
hill/mountain
costa (R2-3) side of
hill/mountain
pendenza (R2-3)
gradient, slant
(abstr.)
erta (R3) steep uphill
slope
scarpata steep slope
(usu short)
115
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
to get hold of (see also to take)
general prendere pigliare (R1-2 Center, South)
specific
accalappiare (R3) to catch (usu stray dogs; fig, persons)
acchiappare (R1) to catch (usu persons, animals)
acciuffare (R1-2) to catch (usu persons)
afferrare to catch and hold tightly
agguantare (R1) to catch
to catch
catturare to capture, to take prisoner
aggrapparsi a qc/qu to grab and hold onto sth/sb
cogliere to pick, to pluck; fig to seize (e.g. opportunity)
ghermire (R3) to clutch (of birds of prey etc.)
to grab
impugnare (R2-3) to grab, to grip with one’s hand (weapons, racquets,
tools etc.)
to take impossessarsi di qc/qu (R2-3) to appropriate, to seize
possession impadronirsi di qc/qu (R2-3) to appropriate, to seize; fig to master
(e.g. languages)
hole
general
buco hole (gen) buca hole (usu in the ground), one side
opening
foro (R2-3) hole (usu round) pertugio (R3) small, narrow hole
specific
crack crepa crack crepaccio large
crack in ground,
rock or glacier
(crevasse)
fessura (R2-3)
crack, narrow
opening
fenditura (R3)
cleft, crack
hollow vuoto hollow, gap cavità (R2-3) cavity, hollow
pit fossa hole dug in the ground, pit; tomb scavo (R2-3) excavation
(others) apertura (R2-3)
opening
orifizio (R3) orifice breccia (R3) breach,
gap in a fortified wall
116
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
holidays
festivity day off work
festa
holiday, usu festivity but also day off work; in the plural it often refers to the Christmas
holidays e.g. buone feste = season’s greetings
giorno festivo
(R2-3) holiday, usu opposed to giorno feriale = week day, working day
vacanza holiday (from school, work); in
vacanza = on holiday
permesso leave; in permesso = on leave
ferie (f pl) holidays (from work); in ferie = on
holiday (from work)
congedo leave, usu from military service
(also = discharge), but also from work; usu
in the expression in congedo = on leave
(also = retired, discharged)
licenza leave (usu military); often in the
expression in licenza = on leave
ponte (m) day(s) off work bridging two
holidays; also used to indicate the resulting
extended holiday
festività (R2-3) festivity, feast day
ricorrenza (R2-3) recurring feast day
solennità (R2-3) (solemn) feast day (usu
religious)
anno sabbatico (R2-3) sabbatical
to hurry
to hurry (to do sth)
sbrigarsi (a + inf) (R1-2) spicciarsi (a + inf) (R1)
fare presto (a + inf) to be quick (at doing
sth)
correre (a + inf) to run (to do sth)
affrettarsi (a + inf) (R2-3) to hurry precipitarsi (a + inf) (R2-3) to rush
to be in a hurry
avere fretta andare di fretta/corsa
117
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
to inform
far sapere (qc a qu)
informare (qu di/su qc)
mettere al corrente (qu di qc)
rendere noto (qc a qu)
ragguagliare (qu su qc)
specific
notificare (qc a qu) (R3)
to notify
avvertire (qu di qc)
avvisare (qu di qc)
to notify; to warn
ammonire (R3)
to warn
prevenire (R3)
to forewarn
comunicare (qc a qu)
(R2-3)
to communicate
partecipare (qc a qu) (R3)
to communicate; to announce
annunciare (qc a qu)
to announce
general
R1 R2 R3
to know
sapere
to have knowledge of sth; to
know how to do something
conoscere
to be acquainted/familiar with
sth/sb; to meet sb for the first
time
intendersi di qc
to be competent about sth, to
be an expert on sth
118
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
language
lingua
linguaggio type of language, language faculty idioma (m R3) language, idiom
dialetto dialect vernacolo (R3) vernacular, dialect
favella (R3) (power of) speech, talking gergo jargon, slang
parlare (m R2-3) way of
speaking, dialect
parlata way of speaking,
dialect, accent
parola (gift of) speech
to leave
transitive
lasciare abbandonare to abandon
intransitive (see also TO MOVE)
note: aux essere unless otherwise stated; place of departure usu introduced by da
partire (per + destination) to leave andarsene, andar via to go away
allontanarsi to go off, to wander from uscire to go out
decollare (R2-3) (aux avere) to take off salpare (per + destination) (R3) to weigh
anchor, to set sail
leg
gamba leg (human, furniture) arto inferiore (R3) lower
limb
arto posteriore (R3) hind
limb
zampa leg (animal), paw
coscia thigh; also leg of butchered/cooked
animals, e.g. coscia di pollo = chicken
leg, drumstick
coscio leg of larger animals, when butchered
or cooked, e.g. coscio di agnello = leg
of lamb
119
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
money
soldi (m pl) denaro (danaro) (more abstract and
less common than soldi)
general
quattrini (m pl R1-2) also = dough
specific
cash contante (m) usu pl, as in the
expression in contanti = cash
(as a way of payment)
(denaro) liquido (R2-3)
change resto (balance of a transaction)
coin moneta also = currency; money
(abstr.); (R1 North) small change
spiccioli (m pl) loose change
currency valuta (R2-3) divisa (R3)
grana (R1) pecunia (R1) conquibus (m R1)
dindi (m pl R1, baby talk) money baiocchi (m pl R1) (also (lit R3)
= baiocs, old papal currency)
dough etc
schei (m pl R1, Veneto) money palanche (f pl R1, North) money
fortuna capitale (m R1-2) (usu [R2] =
capital)
fortune
patrimonio (R1-2) e.g. costare/spendere un patrimonio = to cost/to
spend a fortune; also (R1-2-3) = estate
funds fondi (m pl)
nest-egg risparmi (m pl) savings gruzzolo (R1-2)
savings
peculio (R1) (also
[R3] = peculium)
note: un soldo, una lira, un quattrino (R1-2), il becco di un quattrino (R1) are used
in negative sentences, meaning (not) a penny/a twopence/a bean/a cent
mouthful
boccone (m) mouthful, bite (of food), morsel boccata mouthful, usu of air (= breath) or
smoke (= puff)
morso bite (gen) tirata (R1) puff (cigarette smoke)
sorso sip sorsata sip, gulp
120
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
to move (intr)
to shift muoversi (absolute or with
direction) to move (gen, with or
without changing place)
spostarsi (absolute or with direction
or with destination) to move (usu
from one place to another)
to move house traslocare (aux avere),
traslocarsi (absolute or with
destination)
trasferirsi (absolute or with
destination)
to go away andarsene sloggiare (aux avere) to move
out
name
name, surname nome (m) name (also fig); full name; given name; also noun
cognome (m) surname, family name
nome di battesimo (R2-3) first name, Christian name
nominativo (R3) name (bureaucratic, usu in lists etc)
note: in Italy, the practice of putting surname before name often finds its
way outside the realm of bureaucracy
nickname soprannome (m) nomìgnolo appellativo (R3)
pseudonym pseudònimo (R2-3)
pseudonym (gen)
nome d arte (R3)
pseudonym (esp of
actors); pen-name
nome di battaglia
(R3) pseudonym,
nom de guerre
insult insulto, ingiuria (R2-3), insultare qc, coprire qc di insulti (R2-3) =
to call sb names
121
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
native
noun (person only)
indigeno person born and found living in a specified place, usu outside Europe
aborigeno (R3) original
inhabitant, esp, but not
only, of Australia
oriundo (R2-3) person of
specified birth/ancestry
(usu indicated by adj, e.g.
oriundo italiano)
nativo (R3) person born in a
specified place (more
common as an adj)
adjective
of persons nativo di
(R2-3) native
of, originally
from
belonging to a place by
birth
of culture, flora,
fauna etc.
originario di
native of,
originally
from
local of persons, flora,
fauna,
culture etc.
locale, del
luogo
indìgeno
(R2-3),
autòctono
(R3) original
to a given
place, local
of places e.g.
città,
paese,
terra etc.
natale, nativo, natìo (R3);
note: (madre) patria = native country, fatherland
relating to sb’s birth
of language materno e.g. lingua materna
note: madrelingua = mother tongue; di
madrelingua = native (speakers)
noise
rumore
gen, usu inanimate or unknown sources;
also = sound (when not perceived as musical
or referring to human voice)
verso
“voice’’-generated noise, esp of animals
122
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
noises of animals
All the verbs in -ire in the following table are “isc” verbs.
The first term in the animals column is the most common form for the particular breed; the
respective feminine or masculine form has been given in brackets, if irregular (see also
section 14.1.2).
In the list of animal noises, the infinitive of the verb is often used as a noun, e.g. il ragliare degli
asini.
The Italian verb for “to go” as in “the rooster goes cockadoodledoo” is fare, e.g. il gallo fa
chicchirich`ı.
animal verb noun noise (all R1)
bird uccello cinguettare
cantare
trillare (R3)
cinguettìo
canto
trillo (R2-3)
cip /cip-cip
--
cat gatto miagolare miagolìo miao
chick;
little bird
pulcino;
uccellino
pigolare pigolìo pio-pio
cow (bull) mucca, vacca
(R1-2) (toro)
muggire muggito muu
crow corvo;
cornacchia
gracchiare gracchio (R2-3) cra cra
deer cervo bramire (R3) bramito (R3) -
dog (bitch) cane (cagna) abbaiare
latrare
guaire
-
latrato
guaìto
bau/bau-bau
-
caì /caì-caì
donkey asino ragliare raglio hi ho; i-o
elephant elefante (m) barrire barrito -
frog rana gracidare gracidìo -
goose; duck oca; anatra - - qua qua
hen gallina,
chioccia
-
chiocciare
(R2-3)
-
-
coccodè
-
horse cavallo nitrire nitrito -
lion, tiger,
leopard etc.
leone (m), tigre
(f ), leopardo etc.
ruggire ruggito -
mouse topo squittire squittìo squit/squitsquit
pig
(sow)
maiale (m),
porco (R1∗-1)
(scrofa)
grugnire grugnito -
rooster gallo cantare canto chicchirichì
sheep/ewe
(ram)
goat
pecora
(montone)
capra
belare belato bèe
swallow róndine (f ) garrire (R3) garrito (R3) -
turkey tacchino - - glu-glu
wolf lupo ululare ululato -
123
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
other noises/sounds
Words based on English onomatopeic verbs – e.g. sniff, bang, gulp, sob, pronounced the Italian
way – have become known in Italy through comic books. However, they are not normally used in
the spoken language. This table lists a number of more common Italian onomatopeic terms.
source verb noise-producing
action (noun)
noise (all R1)
child crying piangere pianto uè uè/uà uà
sb drinking bere bevuta glu glu
sb smacking sb dare uno schiaffo schiaffo paf/pàffete
sb sneezing starnutire starnuto eccì
sb/sth falling cadere caduta
capitómbolo (R1-2)
patapùm/
patapùnfete
sb/sth falling and/or
hitting sth/sb
cadere
sbattere
urtare
caduta
-
urto
botta
pam/pàmfete
sb/sth knocking on a
door
bussare - toc toc
sth breaking rompersi
spaccarsi
rottura
- (spacco = crack, not
cracking)
crac
sth falling and/or
breaking, also fig
cadere
rompersi
caduta
rottura
patatrac
bomba
bomb
esplodere esplosione
botto
bum
campana
(large) bell (church
etc.)
scampanare
suonare/sonare
rintoccare
scampanìo (R2-3)
suono
rintocco
din don
din don
din/don
campanello
(small) bell (bicycle,
door etc.)
scampanellare
suonare/sonare
trillare (R3)
scampanellìo
suono
trillo (R2-3)
drin/drindrin
dring/dring-dring
arma da fuoco
fire-arm
sparare sparo pim/pam
orologio
clock, watch
ticchettare ticchettìo tic-tac
telefono
telephone
suonare/sonare
trillare (R3)
suono
trillo (R2-3)
drin, dring
124
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
old
persons things
vecchio
old (also of animals); former
anziano elderly, aged; senior antico ancient
annoso (R3) old; age-old (esp of questions,
arguments etc)
senile (R3) old (esp of age, e.g. età senile)
avanti negli anni
di età avanzata
di una certa età
(all somewhat euphemistic) old, well on in
years vetusto (R3) very old, ancient
maturo mature
attempato (R2-3) elderly
secolare (R2-3) very old (of trees etc);
age-old; (lit) century old/centuries old
usato used, second hand (of clothes etc)
di seconda mano second hand
stagionato (R2-3) matured (of food);
seasoned (of wood); also (R1) elderly
(of persons)
bacucco (R1) (derogatory, often after
vecchio) dotard
obsoleto (R3) obsolete
invecchiato aged
decrèpito (R2-3)
(often after vecchio) decrepit, very old
125
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
outskirts, surroundings
dintorni (m pl) surroundings
nei dintorni (di) = in the
vicinity (of)
paraggi (m pl R2-3) neighbourhood,
environs;
nei paraggi (di) (R2) = not far
(from)
vicinanze (f pl R2-3) environs;
nelle vicinanze (di) (R2) = in
the vicinity (of)
adiacenze (f pl R3) surroundings
nelle adiacenze (di) = in the
vicinity (of)
general
zona limitrofa (R3) (often in the pl), area circostante (R3) surrounding
area
periferia outskirts, suburbs (as
opposed to the city center)
sobborgo (R2-3) suburb
porte (f pl) (city) gates e.g. alle
porte di Roma = at the gates of
Rome, just outside Rome
borgata suburb in the outskirts of
Rome; also village
of a city
cintura (R3) belt (esp cintura
industriale = industrial belt)
hinterland ['interland] (m R3)
geographic area of influence of a
big city e.g. l'hinterland
milanese
pair, couple
pair couple
paio
of objects made of two similar and
complementary parts, e.g. un paio di
forbici/calzoni/mutande/occhiali/
etc.
of sets made of two similar and strictly
complementary objects e.g. un paio di
scarpe/calze/guanti/etc.
compagno (f -a)
member of a set of two objects
un paio (di)
(usu not with nouns forming a pair) a couple
(of ), about two, e.g.un paio d’ore = a
couple of hours
coppia
of two elements of the same kind (usu, but
not only, persons or animals) in some way
related and considered as a set, e.g. una
coppia di gemelli (pair of
twins)/innamorati (lovers)/canarini
(canaries, i.e. male and female)/assi (aces
(etc.), in card games)/etc.
fare coppia con qu = to pair off with sb
a coppie = in pairs
coppia
(married) couple, e.g.una bella coppia = a
handsome couple
note the difference in the following pair of examples (coppia di esempi):
una coppia di avvocati = a pair of lawyers
(i.e. a team of two lawyers)
un paio di avvocati = a couple of lawyers
(i.e. two (or three) lawyers, not
necessarily connected)
126
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
path
concrete
cammino
path, way; also
journey
mulattiera (R2-3)
mule-track
pista (R2-3)
track; also (R2)
trail, ski slope, racing
track; (R2-3) runway
sentiero
path, track, usu on
mountains, in woods,
fields etc.
stradina
stradicciola (smaller)
lane, path
via
path (also fig), track
(in fields etc.); route;
also (usu) street;
way
viale (m)
vialetto (smaller)
path in gardens, parks
etc.
viottolo
narrow path, usu
through fields
abstract
corso
route
percorso
route, run; lungo il
percorso = en route
tragitto (R2-3)
route, journey
traiettoria (R2-3)
trajectory (physics, e.g.
of bullets etc.)
pay
pay (gen) stipendio
salario
pay, esp settimanale/mensile
(monthly/weekly), usu for manual
workers
paga
pay
oraria/giornaliera/settimanale/
etc (hourly/daily/weekly/etc)
daily pay giornata
day’s pay
diaria (R2-3)
day’s pay; (R3) daily allowance for
travelling expenses, per diem
mensile (m)
monthly pay
mensilità (R2-3)
monthly instalment (of salary)
monthly pay
tredicesima
extra monthly pay given as part of
annual salary
quattordicesima
further monthly pay given beside the
tredicesima as part of annual salary
bonus gratifica (R3)
allowance indennità (R3)
also indemnity
for specific
services
onorario (R2-3)
doctor’s fee
parcella (R2-3)
usu lawyer’s fee
competenze (f pl R3)
fee for professional
services
remuneration corresponsione
rimunerazione
(remunerazione)
(all R3)
compenso
(R2-3)
also (usu) (R2)
reward
retribuzione
(R3)
also reward
mercede (f R3
literary)
also reward
127
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
policeman
general
agente (m) (di polizia/di pubblica sicurezza (R2-3))
poliziotto (R1-2)
note: la polizia = the police
celerino (R1)
note: la Celere = the Flying
Squad
questurino (R1) guardia (R1-2)
also guard, cop,
e.g. guardie e ladri = cops and
robbers
policeman (for
general police
purposes)
gendarme (m R1-2 old fashioned)
also cop
carabiniere
member of the Carabinieri, an
army corps with police duties
(including traffic)
specific
vigile (urbano, -a), pizzardone (m R1 Rome), ghisa (m R1 Milan)
traffic policeman (in cities)
traffic police
agente (m) (della polizia stradale), mìlite (m R1)
traffic policeman (usu on roads outside cities); also (R3) soldier
note: collectively, la polizia/milizia stradale; la milizia (R1); la
stradale (R1))
financial police finanziere
customs or revenue officer
note: collectively, la Guardia di Finanza/la Finanza (R1-2)/(less
common) le Fiamme gialle
nightwatchman metronotte (m), guardia notturna
derogatory
flatfoot piedipiatti (m R1-2)
cop sbirro (R1), sgherro (R1) (both not very common)
128
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
poster, notice, sign
avviso notice (esp written, also
official, legal etc);
advertisement in newspapers
annuncio notice; announcement
(esp spoken); advertisement in
newspapers
notice (abstract)
inserzione (R2-3) insertion,
advertisement in newspaper
bando (R3) public announcement
(usu calling for tenders or
applications to compete for
a job)
(concrete) cartello notice (referring to the object as well as the content), placard,
sign
cartello (stradale) (for traffic rules, directions)
segnale (m) (stradale) (for traffic rules, directions)
road sign
indicazione (stradale) (R2-3) (for directions only)
shop sign insegna, e.g. insegna al neon/luminosa = neon sign; also (R3)
emblem; ensign
manifesto poster (gen), bill; also (R3) manifesto
cartellone (pubblicitario) poster (often on a free-standing billboard)
locandina (R2-3) small poster, usu advertising films, plays etc.
affisso (R3) bill, poster
réclame [reklam](f) advertisement in media, esp television and radio,
but also poster
poster
poster (m) poster used for decoration, usu at home
placard, board cartello placard (in demonstrations etc.)
tabellone (m) (notice) board, billboard
banner striscione (m) banner (at the stadium, in demonstrations etc.)
stendardo (R3) banner of a
knight, army corps etc.
gonfalone (m R3) banner of a
city, town etc.
scritta writing on wall, pavement, placard, plaque, tablet etc.
iscrizione (R2-3) inscription (usu on stone or metal)
writing
epìgrafe (f R3) epigraph epitaffio (R3) epitaph
targa (R2-3) (usu metal) plaque, plate; also usu (R2) car number plate
placca (R3) (metal) plaque, plate (in general)
plaque, slab
làpide (f R2-3) (stone) (memorial) stone/tablet/slab; tombstone
129
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
proud
fiero
(positive connotation)
essere fiero di = to be proud of
positive
orgoglioso
(either positive or negative connotation)
essere orgoglioso di = to be proud of
negative
superbo
haughty, proud; superbia = pride, as one of the deadly sins;
also (not of persons) superb
haughty,
altero (R3) haughty, disdainful altezzoso (R3) haughty
disdainful sdegnoso (R2-3) disdainful sprezzante (R2-3) disdainful,
scornful
montato (R1-2) swollen-headed pieno di sé (R1-2) full of oneself
presuntuoso presumptuous pretenzioso (R3) pretentious
conceited
spocchioso conceited tronfio (R2-3) puffed up
boastful vanaglorioso (R3) vainglorious
vain vanitoso vain fatuo (R3) fatuous
arrogante arrogant borioso (R2-3) arrogant
burbanzoso (R3) arrogant protervo (R3) arrogant, insolent
arrogant
tracotante (R3) arrogant
130
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
to repair
general
accomodare, aggiustare
to repair, to fix (also fig)
rabberciare, racconciare, raffazzonare
to fix in a botchy way
usu concrete
note the following colloquial (R1) expressions:
dare un’accomodata/un’aggiustata/una rabberciata/racconciata/
raffazzonata/rappezzata/rimediata/riparata/sistemata (a qc)
to fix (sth) quickly and in a botchy way
riparare (qc)
to repair (gen); to make amends for (injustice etc.); (a qc) (R2-3) to put
right, to remedy
concrete or
abstract
rimediare (a qc)
to put right, to find a remedy (for sth); also (R1) to fix the best one can
(qc = sth)
usu abstract correggere
to correct
rettificare
to rectify
sistemare
to settle; also to fix
(fig)
specific
to restore restaurare
to restore (esp works of
art, buildings etc.); to
re-establish (monarchy
etc)
ripristinare (R2-3)
to restore (buildings
etc); to re-establish
(public order, services
etc.)
ristrutturare
to renovate (buildings)
to repair clothes rammendare
to mend, to darn
rappezzare
to patch (up), also (R1)
fig = to fix in a botchy
way
rattoppare
to patch (up)
131
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
rock, stone
general
roccia rock, usu large and ‘in situ’, on mountains, in the ground etc; also in science
pietra stone (small piece of rock; material); fig cuore di pietra = heart of stone
pietra angolare (R2-3) cornerstone
pietra filosofale (R3) philosopher’s stone
pietra focaia (R2-3) flintstone
pietra miliare (R2-3) milestone
pietra di paragone (R3) touchstone
pietra preziosa precious stone, gem
pietra tombale/sepolcrale (R2-3) tombstone
sasso stone (small piece of rock), pebble; fig rimanere/restare di sasso = to be
dumbfounded
specific
large masso, macigno boulder; e.g. caduta massi = falling rocks (warning sign)
small ciottolo, sassolino pebble
loose breccia
road metal; gravel
ghiaia
(fine) gravel (esp on
garden paths)
pietrisco
road metal, crushed stone
(esp for mixing in
concrete)
other
rock in the sea scoglio rock in the sea, cliff, crag
Rock of Gibraltar rocca di Gibilterra
paving stone selce (f ) flint; cobblestone (roads etc.)
sampietrino (R1-2) paving stone (roads etc. in Rome)
kidney stone calcolo
memorial stone lapide (f ) tablet; tombstone
gem gemma
132
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
to say, to te ll, to speak, to talk
to say, to tell
The Italian verbs in this column are usu tr or
followed by a declarative clause
to speak, to talk
The Italian verbs in this column are intr (AUX
avere), unless differently specified
to say, to tell
(gen)
dire to speak, to
talk
parlare (also = to give a
speech/ talk); tr with
languages, e.g. parlare il
francese
to tell (stories, raccontare to tell, to narrate esprimersi (R2-3)
past events)
narrare (R2-3) to narrate, to
tell (esp stories)
to express
oneself pronunciarsi (R2-3) to
express one’s opinion
spiattellare (R1) to blab conversare (R2-3) to talk, to
converse
to tell (to blab)
spifferare (R1) to blab, to
spill the beans
dichiarare to declare
discorrere (R2-3) to talk, to
converse
sostenere to maintain
affermare (R2-3) to state
dialogare (R2-3) to
converse, to hold a dialogue
to state, to
maintain
asserire (R3) to assert
to report riferire to report, to tell
to converse, to
discuss
discutere (also tr) to discuss,
to debate
to announce annunciare chiacchierare
to proclaim proclamare (R2-3)
ammettere to admit
to chat
confabulare (R2-3) to
talk/to chat in secret (usu
to admit, to ironic)
confess
confessare to confess
pronunciare to utter, to
pronounce
cianciare (R1), cicalare
(R1) to talk idly, to
chatter
proferire (R3) to utter, to
pronounce (solemnly)
ciarlare (R1) to chat idly, to
gossip
to talk idly, to
gossip
spettegolare (R1) to gossip
to utter
articolare (R3) to utter, to
articulate
blaterare (R1-2) (also tr) to
talk nonsense in a noisy
way
recitare to recite; also
(intr) to act
to recite
declamare (R3) to declaim
spiegare to explain
farneticare (R2-3) to talk
nonsense; also (lit) to
to explain be delirious
esporre (R2-3) to expound,
to explain
to talk
nonsense
straparlare (R1) to rave, to
talk wildly
note the following R2-3 expressions:
to give a talk = tenere una conferenza
to give a speech = fare (R2)/pronunciare (R2-3) un discorso
to start to speak, to take the floor = prendere la parola
133
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
seat
abstract
place where one
can sit
posto place (gen), seat (theater, cinema, train, plane, school etc.); also
posto a sedere as opposed to posto in piedi
sede (f ) seat, headquarters, main office; also fig la sede dell’intelletto the
seat of intellect
place where sth is
located
centro center, seat
electoral district seggio seat; polling station (seggio (elettorale)); also (R3, concrete, also
fig) chair/throne of person in authority
concrete = object on which one can sit
general sedile (m) any object used to sit on; bench, seat, esp in means of
transportation (car seat etc); part of a chair where one sits
specific seats
panca long seat, bench (gen, but not fig in sport)
panchina bench, usu outdoors, e.g. park, station etc; also fig in sport
banco bench, usu indoors and for specific purposes: pew, desk (for students
in classrooms), dock (banco degli imputati), jury-box (banco della
giuria), members’ seats in parliament (banchi dei deputati); also
long table, counter; bank.
bench
chair sedia, sèggiola (Tuscan, less common)
armchair poltrona; also stall (theater); comfortable seat in gen (cinema etc)
deck-chair sedia a sdraio, sdraio (f R1-2)
highchair seggiolone (m)
small chair seggiolino small chair/seat (esp for children); pilot seat (seggiolino
eiettabile = ejector seat)
trono throne
seggio (R3) seat/throne of person in authority
scanno (R3) stall, seat in solemn places, e.g. parliament, church (choir)
important seats
scranno/scranna (R3) high-backed chair (e.g. of judges)
strapuntino folding seat (car, train, cinema)
gradinata (usu pl gradinate) tier(s) of seats in a stadium
other seats
sella saddle and other seats one sits astride on, e.g. motorbicycle, bicycle
(also sellino = bicycle seat)
stool sgabello, panchetto (less specific)
note : “seat’’ in garments = fondo (lit = bottom)
134
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
servant
Some of the Italian terms may sound offensive if used out of an appropriate context.
schiavo/-a slave (also fig)
sguattero/-a (R2-3) scullery boy/maid, dishwasher (also derogatory)
servo/-a servant (also fig and derogatory); note servitù = servants, household
staff, but also (R2-3) servitude, slavery
servitore servant (servitrice is less common)
domestico/-a (R2-3)
(household) servant
cameriere/-a
(house) (household)
servant/ (house)maid
donna/uomo (less
common) delle
pulizie cleaning
lady/cleaner
donna/persona di
servizio
maid/servant;
personale (m) (di
servizio) = staff
note: uomo di
servizio is not used
cameriere/-a
(hotel) manservant/
(chamber)maid
(restaurant)
waiter/waitress
colf (f, short for
collaboratrice
familiare)
(household) helper,
housemaid
inserviente (m/f R2-3)
attendant (gen in
hospitals, hotels etc)
governante (f R2-3) housekeeper; nanny
lower
perceived
social
standing
higher
maggiordomo butler
note: there is no exact equivalent of “civil servant’’ in Italian:
funzionario statale/dello stato State official (generic);
impiegato statale State employee (generic, usu not at a high level);
buròcrate (m) bureaucrat (often with negative “red tape’’ overtones)
135
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
shoe, boot
general
calzatura (R2-3, term used in official communications in preference to scarpa) footwear, shoe
specific
shoe (gen) scarpa
moccasin mocassino (usu slip-on shoe, without laces)
sport shoe scarpa da tennis tennis shoe; also (in gen) training shoe, trainer
scarpa da ginnastica training shoe, trainer (for specific sports, scarpa da +
sport)
open shoe infradito (m/f) flip-flop (UK), thong (Aus)
sàndalo sandal
zòccolo clog
boot (high) stivale (m) knee-high boot, usu leather (horse riding etc.) or rubber
(Wellington boot (UK), gumboot (Aus)); lo Stivale = the Italian
peninsula, Italy
low boot stivaletto ankle-high boot (in a variety of materials)
heavy boot scarpone (m) heavy ankle-high boot, esp for skiing
light boot
for sport
scarpa da..., e.g. scarpa da calcio = football boot
slipper pantòfola
ciabatta slipper or worn-out shoe used at home; (fig) old and worn-out
thing
pianella flat slipper
babbuccia slipper (not common); knitted footwear (usu in wool) for
newborn baby; (R3) babouche
galosh caloscia (galoscia), soprascarpa
note: horse-shoe = ferro di cavallo
136
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
to shoot (see also gun)
with a weapon
to fire a weapon sparare (a qu/qc) (also fig)
(at sb/sth) fare fuoco (R2-3) (contro qu/qc)
ferire/uccidere (a colpi di pistola/fucile/arma da fuoco
[R2-3] etc.) to wound/kill (with a handgun/rifle/fire-weapon
etc.)
to shoot sb
fucilare, passare per le armi (R2-3) to execute by shooting
to shoot oneself spararsi
to shoot down (sb/sth) abbattere (qu/qc) to shoot down (esp planes), to kill
to shoot (sport) tirare (a qc); shooting range = polìgono di tiro
note: sparo usu refers to the noise of the shot;
tiro usu refers to its length, accuracy etc.
to hunt andare a caccia (di qc) (also [fig.] = to look for sb/sth);
cacciare (R2-3, less common)
with a ball (sport)
to kick/throw (a ball) tirare, fare un tiro
to shoot a goal fare (un) gol, segnare (un gol/una rete) (football etc.); fare
(un) canestro (basketball)
with a camera
photo fotografare to photograph
fare fotografie (R1-2), scattare fotografie (R2-3) to shoot
photos
movie filmare (qc), riprendere (qc) to film sth
girare (un film) to shoot (a film)
figurative
to shoot heroin farsi le pere (R1)
note: some fig meanings of “to shoot’’ (= to do sth fast and/or suddenly), can be translated in
Italian by the verb indicating the action modified by an appropriate adverb, such as
velocemente, all’improvviso etc.
137
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
shop, store
large shop, store (large variety of goods, with a large staff)
bazar (m) [bad'dzar ] messy store with a
large variety of goods; bazaar
emporio (R2-3) large store with a large
variety of goods
supermercato, supermarket (m) supermarket, selling mainly food, drinks
(including spirits), and household consumable goods
grande magazzino (usu pl) (R2-3) department store, usu called by its proper
name (e.g. la Rinascente)
smaller
larger ipermercato, ipermarket (m) hypermarket, very large supermarket, also selling
furniture, electrical goods etc., usu situated on main roads, in the outskirts of
cities
small shop (small variety of goods, with a small staff)
R1 R2 R3 shopkeeper
negozio
shop (gen)
negoziante
(m/f)
bottega
small and usu specialized shop; also workshop
note: the noun has an overtone of subdued simplicity, but is today often
used to name small but glitzy establishments
bottegaio/-a
(R2-3) (only for
low-key shops)
spaccio
small shop (usu food, drinks and household goods)
also spaccio aziendale, the shop set up by a (small) factory, processing
plant etc., to sell directly to the public
note:
spacciatore/
spacciatrice
usu drug dealer
boutique (f )
boutique, up-market shop (clothes, accessories etc.)
rivendita (di generi alimentari)
small food shop
rivenditore/
rivenditrice
retailer (gen)
punto vendita
outlet (commercial)
esercizio
commerciale
shop (bureaucratic)
esercente (m/f
R3)
[bu'tik]
138
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
to show
to make sb see sth
general fare vedere (qc a qu)
mostrare (qc a qu)
to point to/at indicare to indicate, to point to; to denote
additare (R2-3) to point to/at
to point out segnalare (R2-3) to point out
to explain spiegare to explain
to display
to give proof dimostrare (qc) to demonstrate, to prove; to show, to display
(of sth) dare prova (di qc) (R2-3) (usu persons as S) to show, to display (esp
personal qualities)
to manifest manifestare (R2-3) (usu person as S), to manifest, to display (feelings etc.)
palesare (R3) (usu person as S) to manifest, to make known
to present presentare (person or thing as S) to present, to offer; (person as S) to show,
to produce (esp documents); to introduce
to put on
display
esporre to display (concrete objects, e.g. goods for sale, art in exhibitions,
notices); also (abstr.) to expound
rivelare (thing as S) to reveal, to show, to display; (person as S) to disclose
denotare (R2-3) (usu thing as S) to show, to denote
to reveal, to
denote
esibire (R2-3) (also concrete, usu person as S) to exhibit, to display
(qualities etc.), to show (off); to produce (documents)
mettere in mostra (also concrete) to display, to show (off)
(no exaggeration implied)
to show off
ostentare (R3) to show off, to flaunt (some exaggeration implied)
139
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
side
general
lato side (also fig and in polygons)
note the expressions:
da un lato… dall’altro = on the one hand… on the other hand
di lato = sideways
abstract or
concrete
parte (f ) side (also fig, e.g. da che parte stai? = whose side are you on?);
also part, portion; direction, way; region
note the expressions (cf. section 25.5.5):
da parte = aside;
da una parte… dall’altra = on the one hand… on the other hand;
d’altra parte = on the other hand (but dall’altra parte = on the
other side)
usu concrete fianco side, flank (of human/animal bodies and things in general)
note the expressions:
di fianco = sideways;
a fianco (di qu/qc) = next to sb/sth;
fianco a fianco = side by side
specific
car etc. fiancata (whole) side (car, building, piece of furniture etc.)
coin, medal faccia side; face (solid geometry)
edge (gen) bordo (e.g. sul bordo della strada = on the side/edge of the road)
margine (m) margin, edge
sponda bank, shore; also the edge of a bed and any side of a billiard/pool
table
of river,
lake etc
riva bank, shore
of road banchina (R3)
mountain parete (f ) mountainside, face
versante (m R2-3) hillside, mountainside
page facciata one of the two sides of a page; also façade (building)
team squadra
other common expressions with “side”
from all sides da tutte le parti; (fig) da tutti i punti di vista
offside (sport) fuorigioco/fuori gioco
on every side da tutte le parti; (= everywhere) dappertutto, ovunque, dovunque
on the side come attività extra, in più (both expressions R1-2)
140
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
sme ll
pleasant unpleasant
odore
smell (also fig)
sentore (R3)
smell, scent (also fig: avere sentore di qc = to get wind of sth)
general general
puzza/puzzo (R1-2)
stench, stink
profumo
(somewhat stronger than buon odore)
beautiful smell, scent (esp flowers, herbs,
soap etc., but also food, wine etc.); ALSO
perfume
cattivo odore
unpleasant smell (polite)
buon odore specific
nice smell (formal)
afrore (R3)
acrid smell, esp of fermenting grapes, sweat
fragranza (R2-3) etc.
delicate scent, fragrance (esp flowers, perfumes
etc., but also food) esalazione (pestilenziale) (R2-3)
unhealthy stench coming from swamps,
chemicals etc.
specific fetore (R2-3)
strong nauseating stench (e.g. corpses)
odorino/profumino (R1-2)
(usu) nice smell of (cooked) food lezzo (R3)
stench, esp from filthy things/animals/persons
food
aroma (m)
aroma (coffee, wine, herbs etc)
wine bouquet (R3) [bu'kε ]
bouquet
miasma (m R3)
stench coming from putrescent organisms, esp
in swamps etc.
other olezzo, effluvio (both R3 poetic)
scent (not food)
tanfo (R2-3)
stench, esp stuffy, musty, mouldy smell
zaffata (R1-2)
whiff
particular smells
odore (R2)/puzza (R1-2) di muffa
musty/mouldy smell
odore (R2)/puzza (R1-2) di chiuso
stuffy smell
note: all the terms in this column can be
used ironically in R1 to mean a bad smell
odore (R2)/puzza (R1-2) di sudore
body odor
141
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
to steal, to rob
R1 R2 R3
rubare (qc a qu)
to steal (sth from sb)
scippare qc (a qu)
to snatch on the run (usu from a motorcycle) sth (esp handbag) (from sb)
portare via qc (a qu)
to take away (gen)
arraffare
(quickly) to grab, to snatch, to pinch
trafugare
to steal, to filch
fregare qc (a qu) (R1∗-1)
to pinch (from sb); also
to trick (sb = qu)
appropriarsi (di qc)
to steal, to misappropriate (sth); also to appropriate
fare sparire
to steal, to pinch
sottrarre (qc a qu)
to steal, to remove (sth from sb)
grattare
to steal
razziare (qc), fare razzìa (di qc)
to steal sth (by raid, esp livestock, food); also to raid
(a place)
sgraffignare
to pinch (with sleight of
hand, often used jokingly)
estorcere (qc a qu)
to extort, to wrest (not only valuables, by means of
force, threat, deception etc)
to steal
sth
soffiare
to pinch (e.g. boyfriend,
parking spot, but usu not
valuables)
frodare (qc a qu)
(usu money) to steal by
fraud (sth from sb); also
to swindle (qu di qc = sb
out of sth)
to steal sb rapire qu
to kidnap (sb)
sequestrare qu
to kidnap (sb); also to confiscate
(qc = sth)
rapinare qc (less common qu)
to rob (usu establishments, e.g. bank, esp at gun point)
svaligiare
to rob, to clean out, to burgle (house, safe, establishments etc.)
ripulire qc (less common qu)
to clean out (sth, e.g. safe, flat)
depredare (qc)
to plunder (a place); also
to rob sb (qu)
to rob a
place
saccheggiare (un luogo)
to sack, to plunder, to loot (a place)
derubare qu
to rob sb
scippare qu
to rob sb on the run
borseggiare qu (di qc)
to pick (sth from sb’s) pocket (bag etc.)
to rob sb
spennare qu
to fleece (not necessarily
unlawful; a degree of
naivety is implied in the
victim)
spogliare qu/un luogo di qc
to strip, to clean out sb/a place of sth
142
stick
palo pole, post (also goal post in football etc.), not only wood, usu stuck in the
ground
pertica long and thin pole (also in the gymnasium), perch (also measurement), usu
wood; also fig (R1) tall person, bean pole
pole, post
asta thin pole, not only wood, eg asta della bandiera = flagpole; (sport) salto
con l’asta = pole vault; rod (curtains)
sbarra bar, barrier (usu metal, but also wood etc.), used esp to restrict access to
places or to limit freedom (e.g. in cages, railway crossings)
spranga cross-bar (usu metal) used to lock doors; also bar used as a (street)
weapon
stanga long bar (usu wood), with rectangular/square cross-section; often fig (R1)
tall person, bean pole
bar
barra (R2-3) bar, esp on boats (helm); also bar of (precious) metal; barra di
uranio = rod/bar of uranium; but cross bar (sport) = traversa
mazza bludgeon, cudgel, mace (ancient weapon); mace, baton
(ceremonial/symbolic); walking stick (less common than bastone); also
(sport): club (golf), bat (cricket, baseball), stick (hockey)
manganello cudgel, truncheon
clava club (usu prehistoric weapon, made of wood)
randello big stick for hitting (esp people), cudgel, truncheon (usu wood)
cudgel
sfollagente (m) (short) baton used by police
slat stecca (gen) slat, thin rod (usu wood), often used for structural support in corsets
(whalebone), umbrellas (rib), shutters or fans (slat), with fractured limbs (splint),
in sails; also picket (in a gate); billiard cue
paletto small post, stake (in fences, to support plants etc.)
picchetto picket, stake; tent-peg
stake, peg
piolo peg (usu wood, cylindrical; to hang coats etc.); picket; rung (on a ladder)
bastone (m) stick (gen, also for hitting persons/animals); walking stick; also
hockey stick (bastone/mazza da hockey)
canna reed; rod, esp canna da pesca = fishing rod; walking stick, cane (less
common than bastone); also cross-bar (bicycle); barrel (fire-arms); pipe
(organ); flue (chimney)
stick
verga (R2-3) small cane or thin, flexible branch, also for hitting persons/animals
bastoncino small stick (in icecreams etc); also bastoncino di pesce = fish
finger, fish stick
small
bacchetta small stick (also used for beating at school); wand (e.g. bacchetta
magica = magic wand); baton (orchestra conductor)
drumstick (drums) bacchetta (di tamburo)
(chicken leg) coscia di pollo
joystick (planes) cloche (f) [klɔʃ] (R2-3), barra di comando (R3)
(videogames) joystick (m) [dɔistik]
other
stick of dynamite candelotto di dinamite
ramoscello (secco) (dry) twig
stecco dry, leafless twig, small stick; fig (R1) very skinny person
twig
sterpo (R2-3) dry, leafless twig; withered thornbush, often pl (= scrub)
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
storm
general
temporale (m)
thunderstorm (usu brief and localized, with wind, rain,
and often hail)
bufera
storm, esp with strong winds, often
with snow (blizzard)
burrasca
storm, esp at sea
fortunale (m R2-3)
storm, esp with strong winds
perturbazione (R2-3)
meteorological disturbance (in official weather forecast)
procella (R3 literary)
storm
weaker stronger
specific
pioggia rain
acquazzone (m) sudden short downpour
diluvio heavy rain (usu causing floods), deluge, also fig; note: il
diluvio universale = the Flood
rovescio (R2-3) sudden and very short downpour, shower
scroscio (di pioggia) (R2-3) sudden and very short shower,
downpour of pelting rain; note: scroscio refers to the noise
of falling water and also, fig, of applause etc.
rain
nubifragio (R3) cloudburst, downpour (often causing floods)
hail grandinata hailstorm
snow nevicata snowfall, snowstorm
bufera (di neve), tormenta snowstorm (with high winds),
blizzard
bufera (di vento) windstorm, gale
mulinello small whirlwind; also whirlpool
tornado tornado
tromba d’aria tornado, whirlwind; note: tromba marina =
waterspout
wind
tu`rbine (m R2-3) whirlwind
other: cyclone ciclone (m R2-3); fig (R1-2) very active person, dynamo
hurricane uragano also fig, e.g. uragano di proteste
typhoon tifone (m R2-3) (China Sea or NW Pacific)
144
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
string
general
cavo
cable
corda
rope
spago
twine, string
filo
thread, wire; filo di
perle = string of pearls
fune (f R2-3)
rope
cordone (m)
cordicella
cordoncino
thin rope
refe (m R2-3)
thread for sewing
thick thin
specific
lace, tie laccio
lace, tie (gen)
stringa
lace (usu shoes)
legaccio (R2-3)
strap, tie, lace
G string perizoma (m)
hamstring tendine (m) del ginocchio (humans)/garretto (animals)
wire cord corda
(in bows, musical instruments etc.); the strings (mus.) = gli archi
figurative
series (gen) serie (f)
series (gen)
filza (R2-3)/sfilza
(long) series (also of
insults)
sequela (R2-3)
series (esp of bad things)
chain catena
chain (of events, of hotels, shops etc.; also of mountains)
of bits stringa (di bit/caratteri) (R3)
string of bits/characters (computers etc.)
of onions treccia
string (of onions, garlic);
lit = plait, braid
filza (R2-3)
string (of onions, garlic,
sausages etc.)
resta (R3)
string of onions/garlic
line (gen) fila, coda
row, line, queue
carovana
caravan (also of vehicles)
colonna
column (of vehicles, persons)
moving
line
corteo
procession; motorcade
processione
procession (usu persons)
sfilata
parade (fashion etc); (fig)
long line (of cars, houses
etc.)
conditions condizioni (f pl) (vincolanti [R3]), vìncoli (m pl R2-3)
145
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
stupid, idiot of persons
The feminine ending of the nouns is indicated if it exists.
The literal meaning of words used figuratively (for “idiot” or “stupid”) has been indicated (in italics,
if obsolete or uncommon).
Although the frequency of use of some of the terms may vary from region to region, those that
have been highlighted are frequently heard throughout Italy.
All the Italian nouns in this table can be used as direct insults.
R Italian word n or adj f lit meaning usu meaning
coglione usu n (m) -a testicle testicle; idiot
cazzone usu n (m) -a big penis idiot (Center)
1∗
pirla n (m) penis (North) idiot (North)
1∗-1 minchione usu n (m) -a big penis (South) idiot (Center, South)
bìschero usu n -a penis (Tuscany) idiot (Tuscany)
babbeo usu n -a blockhead, sucker
baccalà n (m) stockfish idiot
bietolone usu n (m) -a big beet simpleton (Tuscany)
deficiente usu n
(m/f)
(mentally) deficient idiot
fesso usu n -a cracked (referring to
female genitals)
idiot (R1∗-1 South)
gonzo usu n -a sucker, fool
grullo n/adj simpleton (Tuscany)
mammalucco usu n -a Mamluk (childish) simpleton
merlo n -a blackbird sucker
oca n (f) goose fool (esp girl, woman)
rimbambito n/adj imbecile, dotard
salame n (m) salami idiot
scimunito usu n -a nitwit, dotard
testone usu n (m) -a big head fathead, thickhead
tonto usu n -a dope
1
zuccone usu n (m) -a big pumpkin/head fathead, thickhead
146
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
R Italian word n or adj f lit meaning usu meaning
allocco m -a tawny owl dunce, idiot
baggiano usu n -a fool (esp North)
balordo n/adj idiot; silly
beota usu n
(m/f)
Boeotian (uncommon) idiot; silly
1-2
citrullo usu n -a idiot, numskull; silly
cretino n/adj cretin; stupid
idiota usu n
(m/f)
idiot; idiotic
imbecille n/adj imbecil; stupid
scemo n/adj fool; silly
semplicione usu n (m) -a simpleton
2
stupido n/adj idiot; stupid
duro (di
comprendonio)
adj hard of understanding slow-witted
èbete n/adj idiot; obtuse
mentecatto usu n (m) -a insane lunatic; fool, idiot
poco intelligente adj not very intelligent
2-3
sciocco n/adj fool; silly
insensato usu adj senseless
insulso adj dull, insipid
ottuso adj obtuse (of angles) obtuse
stolido adj foolish
3
stolto n/adj fool; foolish
147
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
stupid of things
The adjectival use of most of the Italian expressions in the above table is often possible in theory, but
in actual terms rather infrequent. With things it appears to be even more limited than with persons.
In many cases the adjectives are only found in connection with words relating to sb’s expression (e.g.
sguardo, espressione, aria etc.). The most common adjectives meaning “stupid” and the “things”
with which they tend to be used are listed in the following table.
R adjective things usu associated
babbeo look, expression
deficiente look, expression
fesso idea
rimbambito expression
scimunito expression
1
tonto expression
1-2 balordo idea, action, look, expression, speech
beota look, expression
cretino idea, action, behavior, expression, speech, joke
(verbal and practical)
idiota idea, action, behavior, look, expression, speech, joke
(verbal and practical)
imbecille look, expression
scemo joke (verbal)
2
stupido idea, action, behavior, look, expression, speech,
word, joke (verbal and practical) etc.
èbete look, expression
poco intelligente idea, action, behavior, look, expression, speech etc.
2-3
sciocco idea, behavior, speech, word, joke (esp verbal)
insensato idea, action, behavior, speech, word
insulso idea, action, behavior, speech, word, joke (verbal)
3
ottuso look, expression
148
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
to take, to bring, to carry (see also to get hold of)
to take “to”
general portare
to take, to bring, to carry; to lead, to guide, to accompany
to carry avere con sé
to have with oneself,
to take
trasportare
to transport
recare (R3)
to bear (e.g. gifts, news)
accompagnare
to accompany
condurre
to drive, to lead, to take/bring
(persons)
guidare
to guide
to lead
scortare (R2-3)
to escort
menare (Tuscany)
to take (persons, animals); note:
outside Tuscany, mostly found in
idiomatic expressions (with this
meaning)
to take “in”
general prendere
to take (e.g. appunti (notes), medicine (medicines)); also = to react to
events etc. to receive, to get, to catch
to take “from”
portare via
to take away, to carry away
levare, togliere
to take off, to take away, to
remove (from sth = da qc; from
sb = a qu)
asportare (R3)
to take away, to remove (also
surgically) (from sth = da qc; from
sb = a qu)
(R2) to subtract (math.); (R2-3) to
remove, to steal (from sth = da
qc; from sb = a qu)
rimuovere (R3)
to remove (also = to tow away)
to take away, to
take off
note: take-away (of food) = da portar via/da asporto (R3)
sottrarre
149
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
teacher
school/university teacher
kindergarten, primary school
teachers
(asilo, scuola elementare)
secondary school teachers
(scuola media
inferiore/superiore)
university teachers
(università)
insegnante (m/f)
teacher (less common for university)
docente (m/f R2-3)
teacher (gen), lecturer (most common for university); also adj, e.g.
il personale docente = the academic/teaching staff
professore/professoressa
secondary school teacher, professor
maestro/-a
(d’asilo/di scuola)
teacher, also of music, martial
arts etc; also = master, also
fig
prof (m/f R1, students’
jargon)
secondary school teacher
assistente (m/f)
(universitario/-a)
assistant lecturer
ordinario (R2-3)
(full) professor (more common for university)
titolare (m/f R2-3)
cattedratico (R3)
professor (holder of a chair)
lettore/lettrice (R2-3)
lector, language tutor
direttore/direttrice prèside (m/f )
capo d’istituto
headmaster/headmistress
rettore
chancellor
other
istruttore/istruttrice
instructor (usu in practical activities, e.g.
driving, flying, sailing)
istitutore/istitutrice (R2-3)
precettore (R3)
tutor (esp in the wealthy/noble families of
old or in boarding schools)
educatore/educatrice (R2-3)
educator, pedagogist
pedagogo (R3)
pedagogue; (literary) tutor
150
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
thin (of people)
positive connotation usu negative connotation
magro
slim, thin, skinny
àgile
agile, slender
deperito (R1-2)
run-down, haggard
smilzo
skinny
asciutto
lean
pelle e ossa (R1-2)
skin and bone
denutrito (R2-3)
underfed
slanciato
slender, tall and slim
rinsecchito (R1-2)
skinny, gaunt
scarno (R2-3)
lean, skinny
snello
slender, slim
sciupato (R1-2)
worn-out, skinny, haggard
schelètrico (R2-3)
skeletal
secco (R1-2)
skinny
segaligno (R2-3)
tall and skinny
allampanato
skinny, gaunt
smunto (R2-3)
pale and emaciated, gaunt
èsile
slight, thin
sparuto (R2-3)
puny, haggard
gràcile
puny
emaciato (R3)
emaciated, haggard
mingherlino
thin and frail
macilento (R3)
emaciated, skinny and weak
note: svelto and sottile mean “thin,” “slender” when referring to things; when referring to
persons, they usu mean, respectively, “quick” and “sharp,” “subtle”; e.g.:
una ragazza dalla corporatura svelta/sottile = a girl of slender build;
una ragazza svelta = a quick girl; una ragazza sottile = a subtle/sharp girl
151
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
to throw
aim usu involved
tirare to throw, to toss; also to pull (see also to shoot)
lanciare to fling, to throw, also fig (e.g. accusations), to launch (a rocket, a product, a star);
to toss (a coin etc.)
no aim usu involved
buttare to throw (away), to toss, to fling
buttare via = to throw away
buttare fuori = to throw out
note: buttare (giù) la pasta (R1-2) = put the pasta in boiling water to cook it
gettare to throw (away), to toss, to cast; gettare via = to throw away; note: usa e
getta = disposable
scagliare (R2-3) to cast, to fling, to hurl (far away, often with violence), e.g. stones; also fig,
e.g. insults
scaraventare (R2-3) to hurl, to fling (far away, often with violence)
proiettare (R3) to throw (forward), to cast, to project (esp lights, shadows); often in the
passive (= to be thrown); also (R2-3) to screen (films etc.)
tooth
dente (m)
tooth (gen), also in saws, combs, cog-wheels
(cog), forks and rakes (prong)
zanna
tusk, long and protruding tooth in some large
animals; sharp tooth of large meat-eating
mammals, fang (but for snakes dente
(velenifero [R3]) is more common)
152
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
top
top part
general il (di) sopra (R1-2)
la parte di sopra (R1-2)
la parte superiore (R2-3)
giacca
jacket, top (e.g. pyjamas etc.)
top (m)
sleeveless top, singlet (usu for
women)
of clothes
reggipetto/reggiseno
bikini top (usu = brassiere)
(il) pezzo di sopra (R1-2)
(the) top piece, bikini top
surface superficie (f)
top, surface (of liquids etc.)
cover
lid, plug tappo
(it usu fits inside the
opening it stops) cork,
plug; also screw cap
coperchio
(it usu sits on top of the
opening it closes) lid,
cover
cappuccio
(it usu sits on and
around the top or the
tip of the object it
covers) cap (esp pens);
also hood
roof tetto
roof (buildings, cars,
trains etc.)
capote (f R2-3)
[ka’pɔt]
ca(p)potta
soft top, hood (cars)
palato
top of the mouth, roof
of the mouth, palate
highest point
cima
top of trees, mountains, towers, skyscrapers etc.
da cima a fondo = from top to bottom, from beginning to end
in cima a = on top of, at the top of (e.g. pages)
in cima in cima (R1-2) = on the very top
general
NOTE ALSO dall’alto (di qc) = from the top (of sth)
of
mountains
cocùzzolo/cucùzzolo (R1-2), sommità (R2-3), vetta (R2-3), cresta
(R3) (also of waves)
top, peak, summit
principio, inizio
beginning
of pages,
lists
note also a capopagina = at the beginning of the page
figurative
apex colmo, cùlmine (m R2-3), vèrtice (m R2-3), àpice (m R3), apogeo
(R3)
top, height, apex, climax
best il massimo (R1-2), il top (R1-2), il/la migliore, il non plus ultra
(R2-3)
the top, the best
note: the Italian translation of “top” used with an adjectival value before a noun usu expresses
the ideas of “superficial”, “highest” or “last” in a series of levels, and “best”, e.g.:
the top layer of the earth’s crust = strato superficiale della crosta terrestre
the top layer of a cake = lo strato più alto (or l’ultimo strato) di un dolce
the top level = (abstr.) il livello più alto; (= top floor) l’ultimo piano
the top player = il giocatore migliore/più bravo
but top spin = top spin (m) (or, more generically, effetto = spin of a ball)
153
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
to try
to try + verb
provare a + inf
to try doing sth (usu as a means to achieve
something else: the ability to perform the
action expressed by the infinitive is not in
question); to have a go at doing sth
cercare di + inf
to try to do sth (usu as a goal in itself: the
ability to perform the action expressed by the
infinitive is in question); to strive to do sth
sforzarsi di + inf
to try hard/to strive to do sth
tentare di + inf
to attempt to do sth (usu implying little
chance of succeeding)
fare del proprio meglio per + inf
to try/do one’s best to do sth
vedere di + inf (R1-2)
(only present, future and, less common,
imperfect) to try to do sth, to try and do sth
fare di tutto/fare il possibile per + inf
to do everything possible to do sth
to try + noun
to try sth to try sb
provare qc
to try sth (also = to taste); to test sth (e.g. a
car); to experience sth (esp feelings)
provare con qu
to try (with) sb
note: provare qu (R2-3) = (in past tenses)
to wear sb out
tentare qc
to attempt sth
note: tentare qu = to tempt sb
mettere alla prova qc (R2-3)
to put sth to the test
mettere alla prova qu (R2-3)
to try sb, to put sb to the test
giudicare (R2-3)
to try (a legal case); also (R2) to judge
processare qu
to try sb (legally)
assaggiare qc
to try food/wine, to taste sth
collaudare qc (R2-3)
to test sth, usu professionally (cars, planes etc.)
sperimentare qc (R2-3)
to try out sth; to test sth
154
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
to visit
persons places
fare (una) visita a qu
to visit sb, to pay sb a visit, to call on sb
passare da qu (aux essere)
to call on sb, to go/come and see sb;
note: with a place, it simply means to pass
through, to go/come via that place
visitare
to visit (e.g. cities, museums etc.);
note: visitare qu usu refers to doctors
visiting/examining patients
andare/venire a trovare qu (R1-2)
to (go/come and) visit sb, to call on sb
andare/venire a vedere
to visit (places, monuments etc.); also to
go/come and see (lit)
fare un salto da qu (or a/in + place) (R1)
fare una scappata da qu (or a/in + place) (R1)
to drop in on sb, to dash to sb’s place/somewhere
wal l
internal external
muro
wall (in its lit meaning usu implying construction); also fig, wall, barrier (e.g. muro di
critiche/silenzio), wall-like structure, esp as a barrier (e.g. muro di ghiaccio/roccia)
barriera
barrier; also fig, barrier, obstacle, wall (also
in football)
parete (f)
wall, usu internal or seen from the inside,
both man made (e.g. in houses, boxes)
and natural (in caves, body parts etc); also
= mountainside
muraglia
large wall, usu fortified, e.g. la (grande)
muraglia cinese = the Great Wall of
China
muraglione (m)
very large wall, often built for retaining
purposes
(muro) divisorio (R2-3)
tramezzo (R2-3)
partition (wall)
muretto, muricciolo
low (boundary/enclosure) wall
155
3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
window (see also glass)
in buildings in means of transportation
finestra
window
finestrino
(side) window
portafinestra
French window
parabrezza
windscreen (usu car)
sportello
office window, counter, teller
lunotto (R2-3)
rear window (car)
oblò (R2-3)
porthole, round window on ships
vetrata
large window, consisting of a number of
glass panes inserted in a frame, esp stainedglass
window (in churches etc.)
vetrina
shop window; also glass-fronted cupboard,
glass showcase
rosone (m R3)
rose-window
156
Fields of meaning – “Synonyms”
work, job
general
lavoro
work (ALSO = piece of work), job, employment, occupation
job, employment
impiego
job, position, post (usu “white
collar”); employment;
also = use,
occupazione
job; employment
(unemployment =
disoccupazione)
posto
job, position, post
posto di lavoro = job (in
statistics etc.), e.g. 100 posti
di lavoro = 100 jobs
job to do, task, duty
commissione
errand
cómpito
task, duty; homework (usu pl)
dovere
duty
faccenda
job, e.g. faccende
domestiche/di casa =
housework; also thing
(to do), matter
carica (R2-3)
office, position (usu official
and important)
incarico (R2-3)
task, assignment, charge; also
(important) post, usu
temporary
funzione (R2-3)
(often pl) function, position,
duty
incombenza (R3)
(important) duty, task
mansione (R3)
(usu pl) duty, function
ufficio (R3)
office
job done, service, piece of work
opera
piece of work
servizio
service
prestazione (R2-3)
(usu pl) services (often of
professional people); also
performance
note: questa è opera tua = this is your work (= you must have done this)
questo è compito tuo = this is your job (= this is what you have to do)
labor
fatica
toil, labor, hard work; note: fare fatica (a
fare qc) = to struggle (to do sth)
mano (f) d’opera
labor (gen, as a component of invoices etc.),
e.g. il costo della mano d’opera è alto =
labor costs are high
trade, profession, occupation
mestiere
trade
professione
profession
attività
activity (gen), occupation, e.g.
svolgere un’attività = to do
something (as a job), to have
an occupation
157
4 Complex verbal expressions
This chapter deals with common Italian verbs or verbal expressions that do
not have a direct equivalent in English (see also chapter 6, “Idioms,
similes, and proverbs”).
4.1 Single English verbs corresponding to complex
Italian expressions
English verb Italian expression
to agree (with sb on sth) essere d’accordo (con qu su qc)
to annoy sb (usu) dare fastidio a qu
to blame sb/sth dare la colpa a qu/qc
to borrow prendere in prestito
to lend dare in prestito/prestare
note: chiedere in prestito = to ask to borrow
to butt sb/sth dare una testata a qu/qc; (for horned animals)
dare una cornata
to compete (commercially) fare (la) concorrenza a qc/qu
to drop sth (to let sth fall) lasciare cadere qc
to drop sth (to cause sth to fall) fare cadere qc
to feed sb dare da mangiare a qu (people or animals)
note: for plants, fertilizzare
– for things, rifornire (machines), alimentare
(fires etc.)
to haggle (over sth) tirare sul prezzo (di qc) (R1–2)
also contrattare (R2–3, used without object)
to hurt sb fare male a qu
I have a headache mi fa male la testa/ho mal di testa
my feet are hurting mi fanno male i piedi
158
4.1 Single English verb, complex Italian expression
English verb Italian expression
to kick sb/sth dare un calcio a qu/qc (one kick)
prendere a calci qu/qc (one or more kicks, usu
with violence, anger etc.)
note: calciare (R2–3) (usu with things as do) is
uncommon and mostly restricted to sports like
football (calcio), e.g. calciare il pallone
to listen to sb (= to listen to sb’s advice) dare retta a qu (R1–2)
listen to me (= follow my advice) dammi retta
to lock (a door etc.) chiudere a chiave (e.g. una porta)
note: to lock sb/sth somewhere = rinchiudere
qu/qc da qualche parte
to miss sb/sth sentire la mancanza di qu/qc
I miss you sento la tua mancanza (or mi manchi [from
mancare])
to need sb/sth avere bisogno di qu/qc
to nod accennare, fare un cenno col capo/con la testa
to nod affirmatively accennare, fare cenno di s`ı col capo/con la
testa
to notice sb/sth, to attach importance
to sb/sth
fare caso a qu/qc (R1–2)
not to notice sb/sth; to ignore sb/sth;
not to worry about sb/sth
non fare caso a qu/qc (R1–2)
I didn’t notice (it) non ci ho fatto caso (R1–2)
don’t worry (about it)/ignore it! non farci caso! (R1–2)
think about it! facci caso! (R1)
to punch sb/sth (with fists) dare un pugno a qu/qc
to smack sb dare uno schiaffo a qu (one smack)
prendere a schiaffi qc (one or more smacks, usu
with violence, anger etc.)
note: schiaffeggiare (R2–3) (= prendere a
schiaffi) is less common
to smack a (child’s) bottom sculacciare (R1–2)
to starve (tr) far morire di fame qu (also lit = to starve sb
to death); affamare is less common
(intr) morire di fame (also fig); avere una fame
da lupo (fig only)
to trip sb fare lo sgambetto a qu, fare inciampare qu
159
4 Complex verbal expressions
4.2 Single Italian verbs corresponding to complex
English expressions
Italian verb English expression
accendere, spegnere turn on/off, switch on/off
but to turn on/off a tap = aprire/chiudere un
rubinetto
addormentarsi to go to sleep, to fall asleep
allunare to land on the moon
ammalarsi to become sick
ammarare to land on water (esp the sea); to splash down
apparecchiare/sparecchiare
(la tavola)
to set/to clear the table (for/after a meal)
appisolarsi to nod off
approfittare di qc/qu to take advantage of sth/sb
note: in Italian, as in English, the use of this
verb with a person as object usually has a
negative sexual connotation (= to seduce,
to rape)
approfondire (un argomento) to study (a topic) more in depth
degnarsi di + inf (ironic) to be bothered to do sth, e.g. non si `e degnato di
venire = he couldn’t be bothered coming
distare da qc/qu to be far from sth/sb, e.g. quanto dista casa tua
dal centro? = how far is your place from the town
centre?
guardarsi (bene) dal/dall’/dallo +
inf
to take (great) care not to do sth, e.g. si `e guardato
bene dal venire = he took great care/made a point
not to come/of not coming
limitarsi a + inf to do sth and no more: si `e limitata a guardarlo =
she only looked at him/it
pernottare (R2–3) to spend the night (usu in relation to a location)
spiccare to stand out
valere to be worth (with an expression of value), to be
valuable; to be valid
note: non vale! (R1) it’s not fair!
160
4.3 Complex Italian expression, complex English expression
4.3 Complex Italian expressions corresponding to
complex English expressions
(cf. section 27.8)
Italian expression English expression
andare a male (intr) to go off (food, drinks)
avere a che fare con qu to have sth to do with sb
avere ragione/torto to be right/wrong
dare ragione a qu to agree with sb, to say that sb is right, to prove sb
right (of events)
dare torto a qu to judge sb wrong, to say that sb is wrong, to prove
sb wrong (of events)
fare a meno di qu/qc to do without sb/sth
non poter fare a meno di + inf not to be able to avoid doing sth
fare causa a qu (R1–2), to take sb to court
intentare un processo/una causa
a/contro qu (R2–3)
also quite common is denunciare qu
(R1–2)
to sue sb
fare in modo che + subj to see that
fare in modo/vedere (R1–2)
di + inf
far `o in modo che tu ci sia I shall see that you are there
far `o in modo/vedr`o di esserci
(cf. section 27.7)
I shall see that I am there
farsi una colpa di qc to feel guilty/responsible for/over sth
non fartene una colpa! = don’t feel guilty about it
mettersi/schierarsi (R2–3) dalla
parte di qu
to take sb’s side
tenere conto di qu/qc to take sb/sth into account
tenere presente qc to bear sth in mind
essere solito fare qc (R2–3) to be used to doing sth
note: the use of solere (R3, defective)
is uncommon and usu restricted to
some persons of the imperfect and the
present tense (indic)
161
4 Complex verbal expressions
4.4 Italian “impersonal” verbs
The verbs in this section are often referred to as “impersonal,” since they
are often used in the third person singular and appear to be lacking a
subject. In fact, in those cases you will usually find that they have a whole
clause as subject. For the student, the main difficulty with these verbs lies
in their construction. Characteristically, for the majority of them, the
Italian indirect object will correspond to the subject in English and, when
applicable, the Italian subject will correspond to the direct object of the
commonly used English equivalent, e.g. mi (io) piace la pizza (s ) = I
(s ) like pizza (do). In the following table, the personally constructed
English equivalents have been indicated in italics in square brackets, beside
a more literal translation of the Italian verbs, whenever possible.
In the following table, only the meanings and uses relevant to the topic
of this section have been taken into account. Different meanings and
constructions may be possible, for some verbs, in different contexts.
When used as below, all the Italian verbs are intransitive and take essere
as auxiliary.
andare a qu
non mi va
ti andrebbe un caff`e?
gli andava di uscire
non mi andava che tu uscissi da
sola
to suit sb [to feel like]
I don’t feel like it
would you (feel) like a coffee?
he felt like going out
I didn’t like the idea of you going out on your own
avanzare (a qu)
avanzano 10 euro
mi avanzano 10 euro
ci `e avanzato del pane
to be left over [to have sth left over]
There is ten euro left over
I have ten euro left over
we have some bread left over
bastare (a qu)
basta! basta cos`ı!
(mi/ti/ . . .) bastano 50 centesimi
non ti bastava vederlo?
ci basta che tu ti sia pentito
non le sono bastati i soldi
non le bastavano i soldi
to be enough
stop it/enough! that’s enough!
50 cents are enough (for me/you/ . . .)
wasn’t it enough for you to see it?
it is enough for us that you are sorry
she has run out of money
she didn’t have enough money
also: basta che (R1–2)
basta che lui lo chieda
te lo do: basta che te ne vai
(R1) / vada (R1–2)
provided that
he only has to ask for it
I’ll give it to you if you go away
capitare (a qu)
gli capit `o un fatto strano
to happen
a strange thing happened to him
but: se capiti da queste parti
se ti capita di venire a Roma
mi `e capitato di sentirla ieri
if you happen to be around here
if you happen to come to Rome
I happened to hear (from) her yesterday
162
4.4 Italian “impersonal” verbs
convenire
ci conviene farlo adesso
conviene che tu lo dica/ti
conviene dirlo
to be better [to have to and similar]
we’d better do it now
it’s better for you to say it/you’d better say it/you
should say it
dispiacere
mi dispiace lasciarti qui
ci `e dispiaciuto che tu ti sia offeso
ti dispiace chiudere la porta?
vi dispiace se me ne vado?
[to be sorry, to mind]
I am sorry to leave you here
we were sorry that you took offence
do you mind closing the door?
do you mind if I go?
importare to be important, to matter [to care, to mind]
non importa it doesn’t matter
non m’importa/non me ne
importa
I don’t care
non importa che lui non ci
sia/se lui non c’`e (R1–2)
it doesn’t matter that he is not here/if he’s not
here
t’importa che lui non ci sia/se
lui non c’`e (R1–2)?
do you care/mind if he’s not here?
non c’importa di stancarci we don’t mind getting tired/we don’t care if we
get tired
t’importa di lui? do you care about him?
che t’importa? (R1) what do you care?
note: without an indirect object this verb is mostly used in negative sentences: in affirmative
contexts essere importante tends to be preferred.
mancare (a qu) to be lacking, to be missed (by sb) [to lack, to miss,
to need]
gli manca molto la mamma he misses his mother very much
mi mancano dieci euro I’m missing ten euro/I need an extra ten euro
le mancano tre pagine per finire she has three pages to go
gli manca un pezzo he’s missing a piece
vi manca l’energia you’re lacking the energy
qui ci manca il sale (R1–2) there is no (or not enough) salt here
a questo libro manca
una pagina/in questo libro ci
manca una pagina (R1–2)
this book is missing a page/there is a page missing
from this book
mancare di qc (R2–3)
non manchi di nulla (R2–3, less
common than qui non ti
manca nulla)
questo sugo manca di sale (R2–3,
less common than in questo
sugo ci manca il sale [R1–2])
to lack sth
you have everything
this sauce lacks salt
occorrere (a qu) to be necessary, to be needed (by sb) [to need, to have to]
vi occorre niente/qualcosa?
non occorre che tu ci vada
do you need anything?/anything you need?
it’s not necessary for you to go (there)/you don’t
have to go (there)
163
4 Complex verbal expressions
piacere
questo film mi piace
non ci piacciono i funghi
non le piace uscire
non mi piace che tu rimanga qui
to be pleasing [to like]
I like this movie
we don’t like mushrooms
she doesn’t like going out
I don’t like you remaining here
riuscire
non riesco a correre
sei riuscito a parlarle?
to succeed, to manage to, to be able to
I can’t run
did you manage to speak to her?
but non mi riesce di contattarlo
il solitario ci `e riuscito
I am not able to contact him
we’ve succeeded in (finishing) our game of
patience
sembrare, parere (a qu)
mi sembravi/parevi un altro
pare/sembra che sia partito
(lit) to seem, to look (like) [to think]
you looked like someone else
it looks like he’s left/he appears to have left
but non mi sembra che lei ci sia
mi pare di no
le `e sembrato di vederlo
le pare/sembra di averlo visto
I don’t think she is here
I don’t think so
she thinks she saw him
she thinks she saw him (or has seen him)
servire
mi serve un cacciavite
gli servivano pi `u soldi (R1–2)
to be needed [to need]
I need a screwdriver
he/they needed more money
note: in the compound tenses servire tends to mean “to be useful,” “to use”, e.g.:
ti sono serviti i miei appunti? = were my notes of any use to you?/did you find my notes
useful?/did you use my notes?
toccare (a qu)
mi `e toccato rifarlo
ci tocca pagare
to be necessary [to have to]
I’ve had to do it again
we have to pay
note: a chi tocca? tocca a me = whose turn is it? it’s my turn
4.5 Verbal expressions with la, ne, ci
Even though for some of the expressions given here a literal meaning may
still be possible in suitable contexts, most of them are generally used
idiomatically, whereby la and ne do not refer specifically to anything or
anybody, and ci has no connotation of place.
note that the idiomatic use of many of the following tends to be
restricted to specific tenses.
4.5.1 Idiomatic verbal expressions with la
La is feminine singular and requires agreement where appropriate, e.g.
non ce la siamo sentita di venire (= we didn’t feel like coming); lui
non ce l’ha fatta (= he didn’t make it)
164
4.5 Verbal expressions with la, ne, ci
averla/avercela (R1–2) con qu to be angry with sb
berla/bersela (R1–2) to swallow (= to believe)
cavarsela (R1–2) to scrape through;
to be reasonably good (at sth), e.g. a tennis se la
cava = s/he’s not too bad at tennis
credersela (R1) to think highly of oneself
darla a bere (R1–2)/intendere to lead sb to believe sth
farcela (a + inf) to make it, e.g. non ce la faccio = I can’t do it;
but non ce la faccio pi `u = I am really tired; I
can’t go on any more
farla finita (R1) to stop (doing sth), e.g. falla finita! = stop it!
farla finita (R1–2) to commit suicide
farla/dirla grossa (R1–2) to do/say a very stupid thing
farla franca (R1–2) to get away (with sth)
farla lunga (R1) to go on and on in an argument or discussion, e.g.
quanto la fai lunga! = you go on and on . . .!
fidarsela (R1) to feel up to sth
filarsela/squagliarsela/svignarsela/
battersela (all R1)
to run away, to flee
finirla/smetterla (di + inf)
(both R1 –2)
to stop (doing sth), e.g. smettetela! = stop it!;
finitela di litigare! = stop arguing!
intendersela (con qu) (R1–2) to have a secret understanding/affair (with sb)
passarla bella/brutta (R1–2) to get through a bad experience
passarsela (R1) to be (doing), e.g. come te la passi?
how are you doing?
piantarla (di + inf) (R1) to stop doing sth, e.g. piantala! = stop it!
prendersela (con qu) to get cross (with sb)
saperla lunga to know a thing or two
scamparla (bella) (R1–2) to have a narrow escape
sentirsela (di + inf) (R1–2) to feel up to sth/like sth
tirarla per le lunghe (R1–2) to take too long a time over sth
vedersela (con qu)(R1–2) to deal with sb, e.g. con te me la vedo pi `u
tardi = I’ll deal with you later; v´editela tu! = you
sort it out/see what you can do!
vedersela brutta to feel all is lost
165
4 Complex verbal expressions
4.5.2 Idiomatic verbal expressions with ne
note that ne is used with a locative value in andarsene, tornarsene,
uscirsene and starsene (starsene da parte, starsene per conto proprio etc. seem
to have an element of distance from something). In non poterne pi `u and
importarsene, ne has a more or less generic genitive value.
andarsene to go away
non poterne pi `u to have had enough (of sth/sb)
importarsene to care (about sth/sb), esp negative or
interrogative, e.g.:
note: infischiarsene
(R1∗-1), fregarsene
(R1∗), fottersene (R1∗) are
much less polite alternatives
non me ne importa un fico secco
(R1) = I couldn’t care less
chi se ne importa? (R1–2) = who
cares?
starsene to stay, to be
tornarsene in qualche
luogo
to go back somewhere
uscirsene to go out; also (R1–2) to say
something unexpectedly, e.g.:
se n’`e uscito dicendo che . . . = he
came out saying that . . .
se n’`e uscito con una parolaccia =
he came out with a swear word
volerne a qu (R2–3) to hold it against sb, e.g. non me ne
volere = don’t hold it against me
4.5.3 Idiomatic verbal expressions with ci
In some of the following expressions, the originally locative ci is used with
the value “for it,” “about it,” or “to it.” This indirect pronominal use of
ci is quite common in many Italian dialects and regional varieties, where it
is often extended to people (che ci hai fatto, a tuo fratello? [R1] =
what did you do to your brother?) (cf. section 16.2).
andarci matto (R1) to be crazy for it
averci (R1) to have, to own
badarci to care about sth, e.g. non ci badare =
don’t worry about it
contarci to count on sth, e.g. ci contavo = I was
counting on it
crederci to believe sth, e.g. non ci credo = I don’t
believe it
166
4.5 Verbal expressions with la, ne, ci
entrarci to have to do with sth, e.g. che c’entra? =
what’s it got to do with it?
mancarci to be lacking (fig and ironically), e.g. ci
mancava solo questa! = (ironic) that’s all
we needed!; ci manca (mancherebbe)
soltanto che piova (piovesse)! = let’s only
hope it doesn’t rain!; ci mancherebbe
(altro)! = that would be the limit, of course,
not at all; c’`e mancato poco! = that was
close!; ci manca poco = there is not long
to go
metterci to take (in time expressions), e.g. ci hai
messo una vita! (R1) = it took you ages!
(lit “a lifetime”)
note: the literal meaning of this verb (= to
put sth into sth else) is quite common, e.g. ci
ho gi`a messo il sale = I have already put
salt in it; also fig, e.g. ci devi mettere pi `u
energia = you must put more energy into it
parlarci (R1–2) to speak to sb, e.g. con lui non ci parlo =
I don’t (want to) speak to him
pensarci to think about sth (or sb [R1])
provarci (R1–2) to try
provarci con qu (R1) to make sexual advances to sb
riuscirci to manage to do sth, e.g. non ci riesco = I
can’t do it
sentirci to be able to hear
starci (R1–2) to agree to sth, to accept sth, e.g. ci sto =
I’m in it
also starci = entrarci, e.g. in cinque
nell’ascensore non ci stiamo = (the) five
of us can’t fit in the lift/elevator
note: in Southern Italy, starci usually means
esserci, e.g. ci sta Ciro? = is Ciro there?
tenerci (a qc) to care a lot about sth
vederci to be able to see
volerci to take (in order to do sth), e.g. non ci
vuole molto = it doesn’t take much (time
or effort or even money); che ci vuole? =
what does it take (to do that)?, usu ironic for
“that’s not difficult!”
167
5 Affective suffixes
These suffixes are usually listed, in Italian grammars, under the heading
alterazione, and the words modified by them are called alterati. Among
them we find nouns, adjectives, a handful of adverbs, and also some
verbs.
The use of alterati is very common in spoken Italian (R1, R1–2). It is
often characterized by affective overtones, which, in some cases, can
neutralize and even reverse the face value of the alteration. Cattivaccio,
for instance, can express fondness as well as disapproval (cf. English
naughty); tardino, literally a little late, can be used ironically to mean very
late. The basic value of the alteration associated with each suffix, however,
should not be overlooked. In fact, there are many instances where the
modified term has acquired a life of its own, generating in turn some more
or less lexicalized alterations (see section 2.3.2).
carta (paper) > cartella (page, file, folder, briefcase, schoolbag)
> cartellina (small cartella);
> cartello (notice, placard, sign)
> cartellone (bill, poster);
> cartoccio (paper wrap, often in the shape of a cone)
> cartoccetto, cartoccino (small cartoccio),
> cartoccione (large cartoccio);
> cartone (m) (cardboard)
> cartoncino (light cardboard, card),
> cartuccia (cartridge).
On the other hand, some terms, in spite of their appearance, were never
obtained through alteration. Bottino (booty) and bottone (button), for
example, did not derive from botte (cask), botto (blow, shot, bang), or
botta (blow, bump), but from French words.
The gender of nouns is
given only where it is
not predictable from the
principles given in
ch. 14.
In some words, an
accent is used to
indicate the main stress
but should not be used
when writing. See
p. 29.
168
5.1 Diminutive suffixes
The suffixes for nouns, adjectives and adverbs have been divided into
two groups, diminutive and augmentative. Positive (fondness, admiration)
or negative (disapproval, contempt) overtones can be found in both
groups. The suffixes for verbs are listed separately.
Apart from the specific destination of some suffixes and a tendency to
avoid awkward repetitions (cuscinetto, but not cuscinino; lettino but
not lettetto; astuccino, but not astucciuccio, and so on), there is no
precise rule to determine which words can take which suffixes: only
experience can tell. The lists that follow are only an approximate guide to
the intrinsic value of some suffixes.
It is possible to have two suffixes in succession, e.g. tavolinetto (nice
little table); tavolinuccio (insignificant little table); omaccione (big ugly
man); casettina (nice little house); grassottello (plumpish).
Altered adjectives follow the noun they modify.
Only a handful of adverbs admit suffixes. The most common are:
adagio, bene, male, piano, forte, poco, tanto, presto, tardi.
Altered adverbs are often preceded (in R1) by reinforcing, although
ultimately redundant, adverbial expressions such as un po’, e.g. un po’
prestino. Similarly, some altered nouns are sometimes accompanied
(in R1–2) by reinforcing adjectives such as grande and piccolo, e.g. un
gran macchinone, un piccolo lettino.
Suffixes are given with their masculine singular ending, when
applicable.
5.1 Diminutive suffixes
Suffix Notes and examples
-ino (with –(i)cino
and -olino)
The most common diminutive suffixes. They
can express cuteness and fondness, e.g.
manina = (cute) little hand; cuoricino =
(dear) little heart; topolino = (cute) little mouse
(Topolino is Italian for Mickey Mouse). Some
feminine nouns may become masculine when
altered with -ino, e.g. pentola > pentolino
(as well as pentolina) = small pot.
With adjectives and adverbs they tend to have
an attenuating value, e.g. magrolino = a little
skinny; verdino = light green, greenish;
benino = fairly well.
note: nouns in -one/-ona are usu restricted
to the suffix -cino, e.g. scarpone (mountain
boot) > scarponcino; poltrona >
poltroncina.
169
5 Affective suffixes
Suffix Notes and examples
-etto Very common suffix, generally used with
affectionate overtones, e.g. bacetto = nice little
kiss; casetta, cute little house. It attenuates
adjectives, e.g. piccoletto = a bit small. Apart
from un pochetto (a little bit), with its
variation un pochettino, it is not used with
adverbs.
-ello (with -(i)cello
and -erello)
Quite common diminutive suffixes, similar in
meaning to the ones above, but not used with
adverbs, e.g. alberello = (delicate) little tree;
venticello = nice gentle breeze ;
focherello = small fire (note the regular
disappearance of the “dittongo mobile” and
preservation of the [k] sound of fuoco);
cattivello = a bit naughty; pazzerello = a bit
mad (in a nice way).
-uccio (-uzzo) This diminutive suffix can express a certain
degree of endearment, as when used with
proper nouns (e.g. Carluccio), or nouns like
ziuccio = dear uncle, boccuccia = cute little
mouth etc., but also contempt, e.g.
avvocatuccio = little-known, incompetent
lawyer.
With adjectives it is attenuating, e.g.
calduccio = (nice and) warm; deboluccio = a
bit weak.
-icciolo (-icciuolo) As with the previous suffix, smallness as
expressed through this suffix can convey a
sense of cuteness, e.g. festicciola = small,
intimate party, porticciolo = (nice) little port, or
a sense of insignificance, e.g. donnicciola =
small insignificant woman. Not for adjectives or
adverbs.
- `ucolo This suffix is used only with nouns and has
pejorative overtones, e.g. poetucolo =
worthless poet.
-olo (-uolo) A rather neutral diminutive suffix, e.g.
montagnola = small mountain, mound;
capannola = small hut.
170
5.1 Diminutive suffixes
Suffix Notes and examples
-otto A variation of -etto, this suffix is used to
indicate the young of some animals (e.g.
aquilotto = eaglet), and it can add a note of
likable clumsiness to the nouns with which it
combines, e.g. contadinotto = a stout peasant.
At times it may lose its diminutive character: a
ragazzotto is not necessarily smaller than a
ragazzo. Some feminine nouns can turn
masculine when modified by this suffix, e.g.
candela > candelotto = short and thick
candle.
With adjectives it has an attenuating effect, e.g.
piccolotto = somewhat small (usually of
persons); vecchiotto = rather old.
-acchiotto Mostly found in the words for young animals:
orsacchiotto = young bear, teddy bear;
lupacchiotto = young wolf. Also used with a
moderating effect with a few adjectives, e.g.
furbacchiotto = quite cunning.
-ici`attolo This diminutive suffix is only used with nouns
and expresses contempt: fiumiciattolo =
small and insignificant river; omiciattolo= small
and insignificant man; mostriciattolo =
insignificant ugly creature, small monster.
- ´onzolo Used with a few nouns, it has a pejorative
connotation, e.g. mediconzolo = incompetent
doctor; paperonzolo = clumsy gosling.
-iccio For adjectives only. This basically attenuating
suffix adds a note of imperfection or
approximation to the adjectives or adjectival
past participles it alters, e.g. malaticcio =
sickly; bruciaticcio = half burned;
sudaticcio = rather sweaty. It sometimes
corresponds to the English suffix -ish, e.g.
rossiccio = reddish. Its use has been extended
to a few nouns, but with a tendency to
lexicalization, e.g. terriccio = rich soil suitable
for potting (from terra, with a change of
gender).
-igno For adjectives only. Less frequent than -iccio,
this suffix also expresses approximation, e.g.
asprigno = sourish.
171
5 Affective suffixes
Suffix Notes and examples
- `ognolo For adjectives only and similar in value to the
previous, e.g. amarognolo = bitterish, this
suffix is especially used with colors, e.g.
verdognolo = greenish; giallognolo =
yellowish.
-occio Used only with adjectives, it has an attenuating
value and it is often used jokingly, e.g.
belloccio = kind of good looking; grassoccio
= plump(ish).
5.2 Augmentative suffixes
Possibly because of an overlapping in meaning with the superlative, the use
of these suffixes with adjectives results in substantivization. To translate he
is very bad, beside `e cattivissimo/molto cattivo etc., we can use `e un
cattivone, but not `e cattivone.
Suffix Notes and examples
-one The most common augmentative suffix, it
conveys the idea of bigness, e.g. ragazzone =
big boy, librone = big book, or even greatness,
e.g. professorone (R1) = eminent professor. It
may change the gender of feminine nouns,
e.g. bottiglia > bottiglione (as well as
bottigliona) = big bottle; donna > donnone
(as well as donnona) = big woman.
Substantivized adjectives are reinforced by
-one, e.g. pigrone = very lazy person, and so
is also the adverb bene: benone = very well.
note: nouns like chiacchierone (chatterbox)
or mangione (big eater), being derived from
verb stems, are not proper “alterati.”
-accio (–azzo) This is the most common pejorative suffix, e.g.
libraccio = very bad book, ragazzaccio = very
rude boy, coltellaccio = big (threatening) knife.
-astro Quite common suffix. With nouns it conveys
contempt, e.g. poetastro = a bad poet; with
adjectives, it expresses approximation,
sometimes with a hint of dislike, e.g.
biancastro = whitish, off-white; dolciastro =
sweetish.
172
5.3 Suffixes for verbs
Suffix Notes and examples
-acchione Less frequent and productive than the previous
ones, this suffix can be used with joking
affection as well as in a pejorative sense, e.g.
fratacchione = big jolly friar or big fat friar.
5.3 Suffixes for verbs
These suffixes are in general less productive than most of the suffixes for
nouns and adjectives. Some of them are found in only very few verbs.
Suffix Notes and examples
-acchiare
-icchiare
-ucchiare
These suffixes generally indicate the irregular
repetition of the action in a somewhat
weakened form, e.g. sparacchiare = to shoot
at irregular intervals and without much care;
canticchiare = to sing softly, absent-mindedly,
with pauses; mangiucchiare = to nibble.
-ellare
-arellare
-erellare
These suffixes have a diminutive and iterative
value, e.g. saltellare, saltarellare/
salterellare = to skip, to hop; giocherellare =
to play absent-mindedly with sth, to fiddle with sth.
-ettare
-ottare
These are quite similar in meaning to the
previous suffixes: e.g. fischiettare = to whistle
away (a tune) (usually softly and rather
absent-mindedly); parlottare = to chat in a low
voice.
-ucolare This suffix has a diminutive value and is only
found in piagnucolare (from piagnere, a
non-standard form of piangere) = to whine, to
whinge.
-uzzare Like some of the above, this suffix has a
diminutive and iterative connotation, e.g.
tagliuzzare = to cut into (many) small bits.
173
6 Idioms, similes, and proverbs
Idioms, similes, and proverbs are the spices of all natural languages.
Italian offers a great choice of such colourful “ingredients.” In fact, since
the popular tradition from which so many of these locutions originate is
inextricably intertwined with the dialects, the average native Italian
speaker will also use a whole range of idioms and proverbs with more or
less accentuated dialectal overtones. The latter are typically at an R1 (or
R1∗) level. Conversely, the use of idioms, similes, and proverbs in standard
Italian – of which the lists below are but very small samples – is generally
closer to R2 (and above).
6.1 Idioms
The following idioms are sorted according to their cardinal word or group
of words. The latter are underlined when not in initial position, for ease of
consultation.
With regard to all the expressions with avere, it should be pointed out
that in colloquial Italian averci is much more common, e.g. c’ha [tʃa] la
faccia tosta.
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
In some words, an
accent is used to
indicate the main stress
but should not be used
when writing. See
p. 29.
174
6.1 Idioms
Italian idiom English equivalent
A essere con/avere l’ acqua
alla gola
to be in deep water, to be in great
difficulties
fare acqua (da tutte le parti)
(lit and fig)
(lit) to take in water (everywhere);
(fig, of argument) not to hold water
(at all)
acqua in bocca! (R1) mum’s the word
essere/trovarsi/navigare in
cattive acque
to be in dire straits
dormire/riposare sugli
allori (R2–3)
to rest on one’s laurels
scoprire gli altarini (di qu)
(R1)
to find out sb’s secrets (not seriously)
andare a ruba to go/sell like hot cakes
darsi delle (R1–2)/molte
(R1–2)/un sacco di (R1)
arie
to put on airs
avere un asso nella manica to have a trick up one’s sleeve
lasciare/piantare in asso qu to leave sb high and dry
fare l’avvocato del diavolo to play devil’s advocate
B piantare baracca e burattini
(R1–2)
to drop/to leave everything
mettere il bastone tra le
ruote
to put a spoke in the wheel
chiudere il becco (R1) to shut up
essere la bestia nera (di qu) to be sb’s bugbear
passare una notte in bianco to have a sleepless night
in bianco e nero black and white (films etc.)
but in black and white (in writing)
= nero su bianco, e.g. mettiamo
nero su bianco = let’s put it in
writing
restare/rimanere a bocca
aperta (R1)
to be left gaping, open-mouthed (in
bewilderment, surprise, admiration)
tornare a bomba (R1–2) to get back to the point
sentirsi cascare le braccia
(R1)
to lose hope
a bruciapelo point-blank; (fig) suddenly,
unexpectedly, e.g. fare una
domanda a bruciapelo
175
6 Idioms, similes, and proverbs
Italian idiom English equivalent
C rimandare alle calende
greche (R2–3)
to put sth off until doomsday
nascere con la camicia to be born lucky
sudare sette camicie to work really hard, to sweat blood
menare il can per l’aia
(R2–3)
to beat about the bush
tirato per i capelli far-fetched
spaccare un capello in
quattro
to split hairs
non avere n´e capo n´e coda to have neither rhyme nor reason
salvare capra e cavoli (R1–2) to have one’s cake and eat it
in carne ed ossa (R1–2) in the flesh, in person
mettere troppa carne al
fuoco (R1–2)
to bite off more than one can chew
mettere il carro innanzi ai
buoi
to put the cart before the horse
avere/dare carta bianca to have/to give a free hand/carte
blanche
a casaccio (R1) haphazardly, at random
cavallo di battaglia (R2–3) pi`ece de r´esistance, strong point,
forte
avere una brutta cera to look unwell
essere al settimo cielo to be in seventh heaven
passarne/vederne di tutti i
colori/ di cotte e di crude
(R1–2)
to go through thick and thin
dare il colpo di grazia a qu to finish sb off
dare un colpo al cerchio e
uno alla botte
to run with the hare and hunt with
the hounds
fare colpo (su qu) (R1–2) to make an impression (on sb)
come se nulla fosse as if nothing had happened
fare il (porco [R1∗-1])
comodo proprio (R1–2)
to do as one pleases
essere in condizioni (di fare
qc)
to be able (to do sth)
fare i conti con qu (R1) to settle accounts with sb
avere un conto in sospeso
con qu
to have an account to settle with sb
176
6.1 Idioms
Italian idiom English equivalent
andare controcorrente to go against the current, to swim
against the tide
avere le corna; mettere le
corna a qu (R1)
to be a cuckold; to be unfaithful to
sb
dire peste e corna di qu
(R1)
to speak very badly of sb
salvarsi in corner (R1) to have a narrow escape
tirare le cuoia (R1) to kick the bucket
D avereundiavolo per capello to be furious
mettere il dito sulla piaga
(R1–2)
to touch on a sore point
doccia scozzese (R2–3) a succession of good and bad news
dormire della grossa (R1–2) to sleep like a log
F averelafaccia tosta/di
bronzo (R1)
to have cheek, to be brazen-faced
avere fegato; avere il fegato
di fare qc (R1–2)
to have guts; to have the guts to do
sth
essere ai ferri corti to be at loggerheads
toccare ferro (R1)/fare le
corna (R1)/fare gli
scongiuri
to touch wood
note fare le corna also indicates
the insulting gesture accompanying
the accusation of “cuckold”
conciare per le feste (R1–2) to reduce to a sorry state
in fila indiana in single file
filarsela all’inglese (R2–3) to take French leave
dare del filo da torcere (a
qu)
to make things hard (for sb)
essere il fior fiore di qc
(R2–3)
to be the cream of sth
avere fortuna (R2)/culo
(R1∗), e.g.: che fortuna/culo
(R1∗)!
to be lucky
what a fluke!
fare un freddo cane (R1–2) to be freezing cold (of weather)
molto/tutto fumo e
poco/niente arrosto (R1–2)
more appearance than substance, all
appearance and no substance
andare in fumo to go up in smoke
essere/trovarsi tra due
fuochi
to be caught in the crossfire, be
between two fires
177
6 Idioms, similes, and proverbs
Italian idiom English equivalent
essere fuori di s´e to be beside oneself (usu negative)
uscire/essere/andare fuori
dai g`angheri (R1–2)
to lose one’s temper
fare il furbo, e.g.:
non fate i furbi!
to try to be smart/clever
don’t you try to be smart!
G fare una gaffe [gaf] to put one’s foot in it, to make a
faux pas
andare a letto con le galline
(R1–2)
to go to bed very early
una (brutta) gatta da pelare
(R1–2)
a hard nut to crack
(esserci) quattro gatti (R1)
e.g.: c’erano quattro gatti
very few people (to attend)
there were very few people
in gioco/in ballo (R1–2) at stake
un gioco da ragazzi (fig) a piece of cake (fig)
prendere in giro/per i
fondelli (R1–2)/per il culo
(R1∗) (qu)
to pull sb’s leg, to make a fool of sb,
to cheat sb
la goccia d’acqua che fa
traboccare il vaso
the straw that broke the camel’s
back, the last straw
alzare il g´omito to drink (alcohol), to bend the
elbow
I essere/trovarsi tra
l’inc `udine e il martello
to be between the devil and the
deep blue sea
L spezzare una lancia a favore
di qu (R3)
to plead sb’ s cause
in linea d’aria as the crow flies
in linea di massima generally speaking
non avere una lira (R1–2) not to have a bean/a penny/a cent
dare alla luce (un bambino)
(R2–3); vedere la luce
(R3)/venire alla luce (R2–3)
to give birth; to be born, to be
published
a lume di naso (R1–2) at a guess
M allargarsi/espandersi a
macchia d’olio
to spread quickly in all directions
178
6.1 Idioms
Italian idiom English equivalent
mandare qu a farsi friggere
(R1)/a farsi benedire
(R1)/al diavolo (R1∗-1)/a
quel paese (R1)/affanculo
(originally in central and Southern
Italy for “a fare in culo,” very
rude but very common expression)
(R1∗)
to send sb packing: to tell sb to push
off/to go jump in the lake/to go to
hell/to get lost/to fuck off (all these
are idiomatic and not literal
translations of the Italian)
note: as direct insults, these
expressions are used with andare,
e.g.:
va’ a farti friggere/a farti
benedire/a quel paese (all
R1∗-1)/affanculo (R1∗) = push
off/go jump in the lake/go to
hell/get lost/fuck off
mangiare a quattro ganasce
(R1)
to wolf down
un altro paio di maniche
(R1–2)
another kettle of fish
essere in maniche di
camicia
to be in one’s shirt-sleeves
lavarsene le mani (di qc) to wash one’s hands of sth
mangiarsi le mani (per qc)
(R1)
to regret (sth)
venire alle mani (R2–3) to come to blows
dare una mano a qu (R1–2) to give sb a hand
fuori mano (R1–2) out of the way, far, remote
(of places)
metterci una mano sul
fuoco (R1–2)
to have total trust in sth/sb
fare marcia indietro (R1–2) to go into reverse, (fig) to change
one’s mind
da che mondo `e mondo
(R1–2)
since time began
saltare la mosca al naso
(a qu) (R1–2), e.g.:
gli `e saltata la mosca al
naso
to get cross
he got cross
rompere (spaccare [R1∗-1])
il muso (R1)/la faccia (R1)
a qu
to smash sb’s face (in)
179
6 Idioms, similes, and proverbs
Italian idiom English equivalent
N ficcare il naso (in qc) (R1) to snoop around (in sth)
non importare un bel
nulla/fico secco
(R1–2)/cavolo (R1∗–1)
not to matter two hoots/a damn
non esserci anima
viva/un’anima (R1–2)/un
cane (R1) e.g.:
non c’era anima viva
there to be not a living soul
there was no one/not a living soul
non sapere a che santo
votarsi (R1–2)/che pesci
pigliare (prendere) (R1–2)
to be at one’s wits’ end, not to know
where to turn, to be at a loss
nuovo di zecca brand new
avere la testa tra le
nuvole/vivere nelle nuvole
(R1–2)
to have one’s head in the clouds, to
be up in the clouds, to be away with
the fairies
cascare dalle nuvole to be astonished, to come back to
earth
O saltare agli occhi (R1–2) to be patently obvious
a occhio e croce (R1–2) more or less, roughly
chiudere un occhio to turn a blind eye
dare nell’ occhio (a qu) to be conspicuous, to attract the
attention (of sb)
in un batter d’occhio in the twinkling of an eye
non chiudere occhio (R1–2) not to sleep a wink
pagare/costare un occhio
(della testa) (R1–2)
to pay through the nose/to cost an
arm and a leg
essere tutt’orecchi to be all ears
fare orecchie da mercante to pretend not to hear
essere bagnato fino all’
osso/alle ossa (R1–2)
to be soaked to the skin
P cadere dalla padella nella
brace
to jump out of the frying pan into
the fire
dire pane al pane e vino al
vino (R1–2)
to call a spade a spade
parla come mangi! (R1) speak simply and clearly!
parlare del pi `u e del meno to chat about this and that
parlare turco/arabo/
ostrogoto (all R1)
to talk double-Dutch
parlarsi addosso to talk too much and for oneself
180
6.1 Idioms
Italian idiom English equivalent
essere di parola to be reliable
prendere la parola (R2–3) to take the floor
mangiarsi le parole (R1) to speak indistinctly
fare quattro passi (R1–2) to go for a stroll
essere pazzo/matto da
legare (R1)
to be completely mad
non avere peli sulla lingua
(R1–2)
not to mince words
non stare pi `u nella pelle
(R1–2)
to be beside oneself (with joy or
expectation)
avere la pelle d’oca; far
venire la pelle d’oca a qu
(R1)
to get goose pimples/bumps; to
make sb get goose pimples/bumps
cercare il pelo nell’uovo to be always picking holes in things
per un pelo (R1), e.g.:
(lui) ce l’ha fatta per un pelo
per un pelo non `e caduto
just; nearly
he made it by the skin of his teeth
(affirmative) he very nearly fell
down (negative)
perdere la b` ussola/la
tramontana/le staffe
to lose one’s temper
pagare di persona to meet one’s responsibilities
squarely
fare un pesce d’aprile a qu to play an April’s Fool’s Day trick
on sb
pezzo grosso (R1–2) big shot, important person
scendere in picchiata to dive (of a plane)
prendere due piccioni con
una fava (R1–2)
to kill two birds with one stone
andare a picco; colare a
picco
to sink (intr); to sink (both tr and
intr)
non reggersi in piedi to be weak, not to stand up (lit of
people etc., fig of arguments etc.)
andare coi piedi di piombo
(R1–2)
to watch one’s step, to proceed very
carefully
indorare la p`ıllola (R2–3) to sugar/gild the pill, to make sth
easier to swallow
piove che Dio la manda (R1)/
piove a catinelle (R1–2)
it’s raining cats and dogs/buckets
essere il pomo della
discordia
to be the bone of contention
181
6 Idioms, similes, and proverbs
Italian idiom English equivalent
essere poveri in canna
(R1–2)/ridotti sul lastrico
(R2–3)/al verde (R1–2)/in
bolletta (R1–2)
to be broke
mettere la pulce
nell’orecchio a qu (R1–2)
to insinuate sth, to hint at sth
mettere i puntini sulle/sugli
i (R1–2)
to dot one’s i’s and cross one’s t’s
di punto in bianco out of the blue
essere a un punto morto to be at a standstill (of negotiations
etc.)
scatenare un putiferio/fare
un casino (del diavolo/
della madonna) (R1∗)
to cause a row
Q aquattrocchi (R1) in private
R dare ragione/torto a qu to say that sb is right/wrong
tirare i remi in barca to back out of (some enterprise)
mettere a repentaglio (R2–3) to put in danger, to jeopardize
rimangiarsi una
promessa/la parola data
to go back on a promise/on one’s
word
rispondere per le rime to answer back, to give tit for tat
alla rinfusa helter-skelter, higgledy-piggledy
rompere le scatole (R1)/le
palle (R1∗)/i coglioni (R1∗),
or simply rompere (R1∗-1)
(a qu)
to annoy, to pester sb
mancare una rotella (a qu)
(R1)
to have a screw loose
uscire/passare/farcela per il
rotto della cuffia (R1–2)
to get off/to squeeze through/to
make it by the skin of one’s teeth
S fare schifo (a qu) (R1∗-1) to disgust (sb); to be awful; (fig) to
be bad (at sth = in qc or a qc
[game, sport])
scoprire l’acqua calda/
l’America (both R1), e.g.: hai
scoperto l’acqua calda!
to be clever (ironic or sarcastic)
aren’t you clever! (sarcastically)
ritornare in s´e to regain consciousness, to come
round
prendere sul serio to take seriously
182
6.1 Idioms
Italian idiom English equivalent
essere agli sgoccioli (R1–2) to be at the very end/about to finish
per/a quattro soldi
(comprare/vendere) (R1–2)
for a song (to sell/to buy) (quattro
soldi = very little money)
esserci sotto qualcosa, e.g.:
qui c’´e sotto qualcosa
there to be sth fishy
there’s something fishy here
essere (stare)/tenere sulle
spine
to be/to keep on tenterhooks
fare la spola/la navetta to shuttle/go back and forth
gettare la spugna to throw in the towel/sponge
chiudere la stalla quando
sono scappati i buoi
to lock the stable door after the
horse has gone/bolted
non essere uno stinco di
santo (R1)
to be no saint
stare sullo stomaco (R1–2)/
sui coglioni (R1∗)/sul cazzo
(R1∗) a qu
to be utterly unbearable to sb
T fare tabula rasa (R2–3) to make a clean sweep
bruciare le tappe to go fast (also fig, e.g. in a career)
col passare del tempo as time goes/went by
fare il bello e il cattivo
tempo (R1–2)
to wield absolute power, to do as
one pleases
tenere a bada qu to keep/hold sb in check/at bay
tagliare la testa al toro to cut things/the matter short
V fare le valigie (fig R1–2) to leave
vedere tutto nero (R1–2) to be pessimistic
vedere tutto rosa (R1–2) to see life/everything through
rose-tinted glasses
essere in vena (R1–2) to be in the mood
dare via libera to give the green light
avere sette vite (come un
gatto)
to have nine lives (like a cat)
avere voce in capitolo
(R2–3)
to have a say (in the matter)
volere la botte piena e la
moglie ubriaca (R1–2)
to want to have one’s cake and eat it
Z darsi la zappa sui piedi
(R1–2)
to damage/contradict oneself
unwittingly; to shoot oneself in the
foot
183
6 Idioms, similes, and proverbs
6.2 Similes based on adjectives
Sometimes a metaphor can take the place of a simile: `e un pezzo di
pane instead of `e buono come il pane. In some cases (not listed) the
metaphor is preferred, e.g. `e una lumaca “s/he is (as slow as) a
snail.”
For increased emphasis, the simile can be transformed into a
comparative clause with pi `u . . . di/che . . . , wherever indicated
(cf. section 17.1).
Italian expression English equivalent
bagnato come un pulcino (R1–2) soaking wet
bello come il sole dazzlingly handsome
bianco come la (pi`u bianco della)
neve
as white as (whiter than) snow
brutto come la fame/il
demonio/la morte/il peccato (R1)
as ugly as sin
buono come il pane (R1–2) “a living saint,” goodness itself
chiaro come il sole as clear as day(light)/crystal
cieco come una talpa as blind as a bat
contento come una pasqua
(R1–2)
as happy as a lark
duro come il sasso/l’acciaio as hard as a rock/as tough as nails
facile come bere un bicchier
d’acqua
as easy as winking/ABC (of
doing sth)
forte come (pi`u forte di) un toro as strong as an ox
freddo come la neve/il ghiaccio as cold as ice
grande/grosso come una casa
(R1–2)
huge
grasso come un maiale (R1) as fat as a pig
liscio come l’olio very flat (of water surface); (fig)
as smooth(ly) as possible
muto come un pesce close-mouthed, tight-lipped
nero come il carbone as black as soot/pitch
raro come una mosca bianca
(or le mosche bianche)
extremely rare
sano come un pesce as sound as a bell, as fit as a fiddle
solo come un cane all alone
sordo come una campana as deaf as a post
vecchio come il (pi`u vecchio del)
cucco (R1) (or vecchio come
[pi`u vecchio di] Matusalemme)
as old as (older than) the
hills/Methuselah
veloce come il vento as swift as the wind
184
6.4 Other proverbial comparisons
6.3 Similes based on verbs
Italian expression English equivalent
bere come una spugna (R1–2) to drink like a fish (usu alcohol)
cantare come un usignolo to sing like a canary
dormire come un ghiro to sleep like a log
fumare come un turco (R1) to smoke like a chimney
girare come una tr`ottola (also fig) to spin like a top
mangiare come un lupo (R1–2) to eat like a horse
mangiare come un maiale (R1) to eat like a pig (i.e. with bad
table manners)
nuotare come un pesce (R1–2) to swim like a fish
parlare come un libro stampato
(R1–2)
to talk like a book, to speak
eloquently
piangere come una fontana
(R1–2)
to cry buckets/floods of tears
piangere come una vite tagliata
(R1–2)
to cry uncontrollably
tremare come una foglia (R1–2) to tremble like a leaf
6.4 Other proverbial comparisons
Italian expression English equivalent
capitare/essere come il cacio
sui maccheroni (R1)
to be the right thing/person at
the right time
`e come parlare al muro/al
vento (R1–2)
it’s like talking to a brick wall/
the wall
essere come cane e gatto
(R1–2)
to be (always fighting) like cat
and dog
essere come il diavolo e
l’acqua santa (R1–2)
to be like cat and dog
essere come il vaso di coccio
tra i vasi di ferro (R2–3)
to be in a risky situation, in the
company of much rougher
comrades
essere/fare come il bue che
dice cornuto all’asino (R1)
to be/to do like the pot that calls
the kettle black
essere/sentirsi come un pesce
fuor d’acqua
to be/to feel like a fish out of
water
peggio che andar di notte
(R1–2)
worse than ever (of situations)
stare come un pasci`a (R1–2) to be surrounded by comfort and
luxury; to be in one’s element
185
6 Idioms, similes, and proverbs
6.5 Proverbs
A great number of proverbs exist and are commonly used in Italian and in
the Italian dialects. Their diffusion at all levels is such that in everyday use
many of the following proverbs are simply “prompted,” that is,
“suspended” after the first few words (e.g. chi tardi arriva . . .), on the
assumption that the listener will be able to fill in the missing words (cf.
English “where there’s a will . . .” and so on). Likewise, some of the
components of these proverbs can be used separately though still
preserving their proverbial meaning, e.g. `e acqua passata (said of a past
event that should not worry us anymore).
The following is only a small sample of the most common Italian
proverbs. (See also chapter 10.)
A literal translation has been offered for those Italian proverbs without a
more or less direct English equivalent. When no equivalent English
proverb can be found, an explanation of the Italian saying is provided.
Italian proverb English equivalent
Aiutati che il ciel/Dio t’aiuta God helps those who help themselves
Batti il ferro finch´e `e caldo Strike while the iron is hot
A caval donato non si guarda in bocca Never look a gift horse in the mouth
Chi dorme non piglia pesci lit S/he who sleeps does not catch fish,
i.e. The early bird catches the worm
L’abito non fa il m`onaco It’s not the cowl that makes the monk
Meglio un/l’uovo oggi che una/la gallina
domani
lit Better an egg today than a hen tomorrow,
i.e. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush
Non si parla di corda in casa
dell’impiccato
Don’t speak of rope in the house of the hanged
Occhio non vede cuore non duole lit Eye does not see, heart does not ache,
i.e. Out of sight, out of mind
Paese che vai usanza che trovi lit The town you go to, the customs you find,
i.e. When in Rome, do as the Romans do
Quando il gatto non c’`e i topi ballano When the cat’s away, the mice will play
Tra il dire e il fare c’´e di mezzo il mare lit Between saying and doing there is the sea
in the middle, i.e. Easier said than done
Una r ´ondine non fa primavera One swallow doesn’t make a summer
A pagare e morire c’`e sempre tempo lit There is always time to pay and to die
i.e. Payments and death can always wait
Chi ben comincia `e a met`a dell’opra Well begun is half done
Chi cerca trova Seek and you shall find
Chi non risica non rosica lit S/he who does not risk, does not gnaw, i.e.
Nothing ventured, nothing gained
Chi rompe paga (e i cocci sono suoi) lit S/he who breaks must pay (and the broken
pieces are hers/his), i.e. He who’s guilty must
pay
186
6.5 Proverbs
Italian proverb English equivalent
Chi tardi arriva male alloggia lit S/he who is late will not find good
lodgings, i.e. First come first served
Chi troppo vuole nulla stringe lit S/he who wants too much gets nothing,
i.e. Grasp all lose all
Chi va con lo zoppo impara a zoppicare lit S/he who goes with the lame learns to
limp, i.e. Bad company will teach you bad things
Chi va piano va sano e va lontano lit S/he who goes slowly goes safely and far,
i.e. Slow and steady wins the race
Finch´e c’`e vita c’`e speranza While there’s life there’s hope
La gatta frettolosa fece i gattini ciechi lit The hasty cat made blind kittens, i.e. Acting
in a hurry only leads to bad results or More haste
less speed
Mal comune mezzo gaudio lit Shared evil, half joy, i.e. A problem shared is a
problem halved
Meglio soli che male accompagnati Better alone than in bad company
Meglio tardi che mai Better late than never
Non tutto il male vien (or non tutti i
mali vengono) per nuocere
lit Not all evil comes to do harm, i.e. Every
cloud has a silver lining
Troppi galli a cantar non fa mai giorno lit (With) too many roosters the morning
never comes, i.e. Too many cooks spoil the broth
Ride bene chi ride (l’)ultimo He who laughs last laughs best
Rosso di sera buon tempo si spera; rosso
di mattina mal tempo s’avvicina
Red sky at night shepherd’s delight, red sky in the
morning shepherd’s warning
Tra due litiganti il terzo gode lit Between two quarreling parties it’s the third
that gains, i.e. The onlooker gets the best
Tutti i gusti sono gusti lit All tastes are tastes, i.e. There is no accounting
for tastes
Uomo avvisato mezzo salvato lit A warned man is half saved, i.e. Forewarned
is forearmed
Vale pi `u la pratica che la grammatica lit Practice is worth more than grammar, i.e.
Practice is better than theory
187
7 Personal names
Apart from names of popes (e.g. John Paul II = Giovanni Paolo II),
in modern/contemporary times, only the names of royalty tend to be
translated into Italian. For instance, Queen Elizabeth, Prince Charles,
Prince Philip, Princess Anne become, respectively, la regina Elisabetta,
il principe Carlo, il principe Filippo, la principessa Anna. This
“rule” does not seem to apply to anybody else, be they Presidents or
Prime Ministers, famous or ordinary people. Consequently, Tony Blair,
George Bush, or any Johnny Lambs will remain untranslated, rather than
becoming Antonio Blair, Giorgio Bush or Gianni Lambs (not to mention
Giorgio Cespuglio or Gianni Agnelli). The names of famous historical
or literary characters of the past, on the other hand, have in many cases
been Italianized, especially, but not only, first names (e.g. Abramo
Lincoln, Beniamino Franklin). This trend has waned in recent
times.
Latin names (personal as well as geographical) are usually Italianized.
This “rule” applies to classical antiquity (all names, including Greek
ones, had a Latin equivalent), and also, in more recent times, to a
number of characters whose names were Latinized (e.g. Descartes >
Cartesius > Cartesio), and to the popes (who always take Latin
names).
In the following small samples – in which more obvious names, such as
Augusto, have not been included – some of the unusual stresses have
been indicated. In normal circumstances the usual Italian conventions
with regard to written stresses will apply.
In some words, an
accent is used to
indicate the main stress
but should not be used
when writing. See
p. 29.
188
7.2 The Bible
7.1 The ancient world: Greece and Rome
Achilles Achille
Aeneas Enea
Aeschylus Eschilo
Aesop Es`opo
Ajax Aiace
Alexander Alessandro
Archimedes Archimede
Ariadne Arianna
Aristophanes Aristofane
Aristotle Aristotele
Artemis Art`emide
Boethius Boezio
Caligula Caligola
Cato Catone
Cicero Cicerone
Constantine Costantino
Cyrus Ciro
Diocletian Diocleziano
Euclid Euclide
Euripides Euripide
Hannibal Ann`ıbale
Hector Ettore
Hercules Ercole
Homer Om`ero
Iliad Il`ıade (f )
Odyssey Odiss`ea
Horace Orazio
Julius Caesar Giulio Cesare
Juno Giunone
Jupiter/Jove Giove
Leto Latona
Livy Tito Livio
Mark Antony Marcantonio
Nero Nerone
Oedipus Edipo
Ovid Ovidio
Phidias Fidia
Phoebus Febo
Plato Platone
Pompey Pompeo
Praxiteles Prassitele
Pythagoras Pitagora
Romulus Romolo
Scipio Scipione
Socrates Socrate
Solon Solone
Suetonius Svetonio
Sulla Silla
Terence Terenzio
Venus Venere
Vergil/Virgil Virgilio
Xenophon Senofonte
Xerxes Serse
7.2 The Bible
7.2.1 Old Testament
Aaron Aronne Esau Esa`u
Abel Abele Isaac Isacco
Abraham Abramo Isaiah Isa`ıa
Adam Adamo Jacob Giacobbe
Beelzebub Belzeb`u Jehovah G`eova
Cain Ca`ıno Jeremiah Geremia
David Davide Job Giobbe
Delilah D`alila Joshua Giosu`e
Elijah El`ıa Methuselah Matusalemme
189
7 Personal names
Moses Mos`e Queen of Sheba la Regina di Saba
Nebuchadnezzar Nabucodonos`or Samson Sansone
Noah No`e Saul S`aul
7.2.2 New Testament
Andrew Andr`ea Mark Marco
Bartholomew Bartolom`eo Mary Maria
Belshazzar Baldassarre Mary Magdalene Maria Maddalena
Caiphas Caifa Matthew Matteo
Herod Erode the Messiah il Messia
James Gi`acomo Pontius Pilate Ponzio Pilato
Jesus Christ Ges`u Cristo Satan S`atana
John (the Baptist) Giovanni Saul (Paul) S`aulo (Paolo)
(Battista) Simon Peter Simon Pietro
Joseph Giuseppe the Wise Men i Re Magi
Judas Giuda Zachaeus Zaccheo
Lazarus Lazzaro [note: Gospel Vangelo]
Luke Luca
note: the feminine of Andrea is Andreina. Similarly, Nic` ola (m=Nicholas) – Nicoletta (f ).
Also, the name “Simon” on its own is Simone.
7.3 The Middle Ages to the twentieth century
7.3.1 Non-Italian names
Francis/Roger
Bacon
Francesco/Ruggero
Bacone
Charlemagne Carlo Magno
Charles V Carlo V (quinto)
Ren´e Descartes Cartesio
Don Quixote Don Chisciotte
Francis I Francesco I
(primo)
Franz Joseph Francesco
Giuseppe
Henry VIII Enrico VIII
(ottavo)
Joan of Arc Giovanna d’Arco
John Calvin Giovanni Calvino
John de Hawkwood Giovanni Acuto
John Lackland Giovanni Senza
Terra
Louis Luigi
Hamlet Amleto
Magellan Magellano
Marie Antoinette Maria Antonietta
Martin Luther Mart`ın Lut`ero
Mary Stuart Maria Stuarda
Mohammed Maometto
Napoleon Napoleone
Nicolas Copernicus Nic` ola Copernico
Otto Ottone
Richard the
Lionheart
Riccardo Cuor di
Leone
Romeo and Juliet Giulietta e
Rom`eo
Thomas More Tommaso Moro
Queen Victoria la regina Vittoria
William the
Conqueror
Guglielmo il
Conquistatore
190
7.3 The Middle Ages to the twentieth century
7.3.2 Italian names with a Latinized or Anglicized form in English
Aldus Manutius Aldo Manuzio Raphael Raffaello
Christopher
Columbus
Cristoforo
Colombo
Thomas Aquinas Tommaso
d’Aquino
Francis of Assisi Francesco Titian Tiziano
d’Assisi Victor Emmanuel Vittorio
Petrarch Petrarca Emanuele
191
8 Geographical and astronomical
names and related adjectives
As with personal names, so with geographical names: the older the name
(in the Latin or Italian tradition, that is), the more likely it is that it will
have an Italianized version. This explains the great number of European
locations in the following lists.
Each continent, country, region, and city has been complemented,
whenever possible, by the adjective that, used as a noun, denotes the
corresponding inhabitant. The adjectives that do not fulfil this function
have been put in brackets. Any special form used in compound adjectives
(e.g. anglo-) has also been given.
The geographical adjectives, even though the suffixes -ese and -ano
characterize many of them, show a variety of endings, and in some cases
appear quite removed from the name of the place they refer to. This is
usually due to their deriving directly from older (mostly Latin or
Latinized) geographical denominations, e.g. londinese < Lat. londiniensem
< Londinium (London).
In everyday speech, if the particular adjective does not exist or is not
known – some of those referring to less prominent places tend to be less
commonly used − it is always possible to resort to the expression di (or
del/dello/etc., according to the nature of the locality) + name of the place,
e.g. quella signora `e di Aosta; quella signora `e della Valle d’Aosta.
Gender and number of regions and countries has been indicated only in
difficult cases.
In the list of countries and regions of the world, the symbol † indicates
that in normal circumstances that particular name should not be used with
the definite article.
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
The gender of nouns is
given only where it is
not predictable from the
principles given in
ch. 14.
In some words, an
accent is used to
indicate the main stress
but should not be used
when writing. See
29.
The usual Italian
pronunciation of foreign
words is given in
phonetic spelling in
square brackets
whenever appropriate.
192
8.2 Italy: cities
8.1 Italy: administrative regions
Region Adjective
Abruzzo abruzzese, aprutino
[R3]
Basilicata (Lucania) lucano
Calabria calabrese (c`alabro
[R2–3] usu refers to
ancient Calabria)
Campania campano
Emilia emiliano
Romagna romagnolo
Friuli (m s) friulano
Venezia Giulia giuliano
Lazio laziale (latino usu
refers to ancient
Latium)
Liguria l`ıgure
Lombardia lombardo
Marche (f pl) marchigiano
note: laziale is often used to indicate a supporter or a player of the Lazio football team. When
talking about the region (or one of its inhabitants), it is less confusing to use the expression del
Lazio.
Region Adjective
Molise (m) molisano
Piemonte (m) piemontese
Puglia pugliese (`apulo [R3]
usu refers to ancient
Apulia)
Sardegna sardo
Sicilia siciliano (s`ıculo
[R2–3] usu refers to
ancient Sicily)
Toscana toscano, t ´osco (R3)
Trentino trentino
Alto Adige altoatesino
Umbria umbro
Valle d’Aosta valdostano
Veneto veneto
8.2 Italy: cities
There follows a list of the capitals of all the provinces of Italy, their sigle,
which are abbreviations used in car registration numbers (= targhe
[automobilistiche]), addresses etc., and their corresponding adjectives.
note that next to romano, torinese, milanese we also find the
adjectives romanista, torinista, milanista, which are exclusively used in
relation to the corresponding football teams Roma, Torino and Milan.
Both sets of adjectives can be used as nouns, e.g. un milanese (= a (male)
citizen of (or person born in) Milan), un milanista (= a (male) supporter
of AC Milan).
193
8 Geographical names
The adjective ambrosiano (from Ambrogio, patron saint of Milan) is
often used (in R2–3) as an alternative to milanese.
The English name of the Italian town (if any) is given in brackets.
Each of the two provinces of Massa-Carrara and Pesaro-Urbino has one
sigla, respectively MS and PS, but two capitals. The corresponding
adjectives have been given for both pairs.
City Abbr. Adjective
Agrigento AG agrigentino
Alessandria AL alessandrino
Ancona AN anconetano,
anconitano
Aosta AO aostano
Arezzo AR aretino
Ascoli Piceno AP ascolano
Asti AT astigiano
Avellino AV avellinese
Bari BA barese
Belluno BL bellunese
Benevento BN beneventano
B`ergamo BG bergamasco
Biella BI biellese
Bologna BO bolognese
Bolzano BZ bolzanino, -ese
Brescia BS bresciano
Br`ındisi BR brindisino
C`agliari CA cagliaritano
Caltanissetta CL nisseno
Campobasso CB campobassano
Caserta CE casertano
Catania CT catanese
Catanzaro CZ catanzarese
Chieti CH teatino, chietino
Como CO comasco,
comacino (R3)
Cosenza CS cosentino
Cremona CR cremonese
Crotone KR crotonese
C`uneo CN cunee(n)se
City Abbr. Adjective
Enna EN ennese
Ferrara FE ferrarese
Firenze
(Florence)
FI fiorentino
Foggia FG foggiano
Forl`ı FO forlivese
Frosinone FR frusinate
Genova
(Genoa)
GE genovese
Gorizia GO goriziano
Grosseto GR grossetano
Imperia IM imperiese
Isernia IS isernino
L’Aquila AQ aquilano
La Spezia SP spezzino
Latina LT latinense
Lecce LE leccese
Lecco LC lecchese
Livorno
(Leghorn)
LI livornese
Lodi LO lodigiano
Lucca LU lucchese
Macerata MC maceratese
Mantova
(Mantua)
MN mantovano
Massa MS massese
Carrara carr(ar)ese
Matera MT materano
194
8.2 Italy: cities
City Abbr. Adjective
Messina ME messinese
Milano
(Milan)
MI milanese
Modena MO modenese
Napoli
(Naples)
NA napoletano
Novara NO novarese
Nuoro NU nuorese
Oristano OR oristanese
Padova (Padua) PD padovano
Palermo PA palermitano
Parma PR parmigiano,
parmense
Pavia PV pavese
Perugia PG perugino
Pesaro PS pesarese
Urbino urbinate
Pescara PE pescarese
Piacenza PC piacentino
Pisa PI pisano
Pistoia PT pistoiese
Pordenone PN pordenonese
Potenza PZ potentino
Prato PO pratese
Ragusa RG ragusano
Ravenna RA ravennate,
ravegnano (less
common)
Reggio
Calabria
RC reggino
Reggio Emilia RE reggiano
Rieti RI reatino, rietino
City Abbr. Adjective
Rimini RN riminese
Roma ROMA romano
Rovigo RO rodigino,
rovigotto
Salerno SA salernitano
Sassari SS sassarese
Savona SV savonese
Siena SI senese
Siracusa SR siracusano
Sondrio SO sondriese,
sondriotto
T`aranto TA tarantino
T`eramo TE teramano
Terni TR ternano
Torino
(Turin)
TO torinese
Tr`apani TP trapanese
Trento (Trent) TN trentino
Treviso TV trevisano,
trevigiano
Trieste TS triestino
Udine UD udinese
Varese VA varesino,
varesotto
Venezia
(Venice)
VE veneziano
Verbania VB verbanese
Vercelli VC vercellese
Verona VR veronese
Vibo Valentia VV vibonese
Vicenza VI vicentino
Viterbo VT viterbese
195
8 Geographical names
8.3 Continents
English name Italian name Italian adjective
Africa Africa africano, afro-
America America americano
North America America del Nord,
Nordamerica
nordamericano
South America America del Sud,
Sudamerica
sudamericano
Antarctica Ant`artide (f ) (ant`artico)
Asia Asia asiatico
Europe Europa europeo, euro-
Oceania Oceania oceaniano (R3)
note: America is often used (in R1–2) meaning Stati Uniti, and
americano (in R2) meaning statunitense.
8.4 Europe: countries and regions
This table lists a number of European countries and regions that have an
Italian name markedly different from the English, and/or an unusual
adjective.
English name Italian name Italian adjective
Albania Alban`ıa albanese, albano-
Armenia Armenia armeno
Austria Austria austriaco, austro-
Bavaria Baviera bavarese
Belgium Belgio belga (pl. belgi/
belghe)
Bohemia Boemia boemo
Bulgaria Bulgar`ıa b` ulgaro
Burgundy Borgogna borgognone
Catalonia Catalogna catalano
Cornwall Cornovaglia (c`ornico) (R3)
196
8.4 Europe: countries and regions
English name Italian name Italian adjective
Corsica Corsica c`orso
Croatia Croazia croato
Cyprus Cipro † (f ) cipriota
Czech Republic Repubblica Ceca ceco
Denmark Danimarca danese
Estonia Estonia `estone
Finland Finlandia finlandese, f`ınnico
(R2–3)
France Francia francese, franco-
Germany Germania tedesco
Great Britain Gran Bretagna britannico
England Inghilterra inglese, anglo-
Northern Ireland Irlanda del Nord nordirlandese
Scotland Scozia scozzese
Wales Galles (m) gallese
United Kingdom Regno Unito (R2–3) –
Greece Grecia greco
Greenland Groenlandia groenlandese
Holland Olanda olandese
Hungary Ungheria ungherese, ugro-
Ireland Irlanda irlandese
Iceland Islanda islandese
Italy Italia italiano, `ıtalo-
Kosovo Kosovo co(s)sovaro
Lapland Lapponia l`appone
Latvia Lettonia l`ettone
Lithuania Lituania lituano
Luxembourg Lussemburgo lussemburghese
Macedonia Macedonia mac`edone
Moldova Moldavia moldavo
Monaco Montecarlo †
(f )/Principato di
M`onaco
monegasco
197
8 Geographical names
English name Italian name Italian adjective
Montenegro Montenegro montenegrino
Norway Norvegia norvegese
Poland Polonia polacco
Portugal Portogallo portoghese
Provence Provenza provenzale
Rhodes Rodi † (f ) rodiota (R2–3),
rodiense (R2–3),
rodiese, r`odio (R3)
Romania Romania romeno, rumeno
Russia Russia russo
San Marino San Marino † (f ) sanmarinese
Savoy Savoia savoiardo
Saxony Sassonia s`assone
Scandinavia Scandinavia scandin`avo
Serbia Serbia serbo
Slovak Republic Slovacchia slovacco
Slovenia Slovenia sloveno
Soviet Union Unione Sovietica sovietico
Spain Spagna spagnolo, ispano-
Swabia Svevia svevo
Sweden Svezia svedese
Switzerland Svizzera svizzero
Turkey Turchia turco
Ukraine Ucr`aina ucr`aino
Vatican City Citt`a del Vaticano (vaticano)
note: the terms Inghilterra/inglese (and anglo-) are often used
(R1–2) with the meanings of Gran Bretagna/britannico. Similarly,
Russia/russo are often used with the meaning of Unione
Sovietica/sovietico.
note also that, although rejected by purists, the pronunciation
scand`ınavo is commonly used.
198
8.6 Asia: countries and regions
8.5 The Americas: countries and regions
Many South American countries have the same name in Italian as in
English, and a corresponding adjective formed along the lines of
Colombia – colombiano. They have not been included in this list.
English name Italian name Italian adjective
Argentina Argentina argentino
Brazil Brasile (m) brasiliano
Canada C`anada/Canad`a (m) canadese
Chile Cile (m) cileno
Ecuador Ecuador (m) ecuadoriano
El Salvador (El) Salvador (m) salvadoregno (R2–3)
Guatemala Guatemala (m) guatemalteco (R2–3)
Honduras Honduras (m) honduregno (R2–3),
honduriano
Mexico Messico messicano
Nicaragua Nicaragua (m) nicaraguegno (R2–3),
nicaraguese
Panama Panama † (f ) panamense
Peru Per `u (m) peruviano
Puerto Rico Portorico portoricano
Tierra del Fuego Terra del Fuoco –
US(A) Stati Uniti
(d’America) (m pl),
America (R1–2)
statunitense (R2–3),
americano
note: some of the States of the USA have a corresponding adjective
in Italian: californiano, texano, georgiano, hawaiano
[avajano/awajano].
8.6 Asia: countries and regions
This table lists some of the Asian countries that have an Italian name
markedly different from the English, and/or an unusual adjective.
Due to the origin of the geographical names ending in -stan
(= territory [of a certain people]) a similar pattern characterizes most
199
8 Geographical names
adjectives corresponding to regions ending in this way, e.g. Afganistan –
afgano, Usbechistan – usbeco. A notable exception is Pakistan (whose
formation is different), that gives the adjectives pachistano, pakistano.
English name Italian name Italian adjective
Afghanistan Afganistan (m) afgano
Burma Birmania birmano
Cambodia Cambogia cambogiano
China Cina cinese, sino-
Iraq Iraq (m) iracheno
Israel Israele † (m) israeliano
Japan Giappone (m) giapponese
Java Giava † giavanese
Jordan Giordania giordano
Laos Laos (m) laotiano (R2–3)
Lebanon Libano libanese
Malaya Malesia malese
Middle East Medio Oriente mediorientale
Mongolia Mongolia m`ongolo
Palestine Palestina palestinese
Philippines Filippine (f pl) filippino
Saudi Arabia Arabia Saudita arabo, saudita, arabo-
Thailand Tailandia tailandese
Tibet T`ıbet (m) tibetano
Vietnam Vietnam (m) vietnamita
Yemen Yemen (m) yemenita
note: israelita (= Israelite) is not used to indicate an inhabitant of
modern Israel. Also: Hebrew, Jew = ebreo (n); Hebrew (adj) =
ebraico; Jewish = ebraico, ebreo (less common).
8.7 Africa: countries and regions
This table lists some of the African countries and regions that have an
Italian name markedly different from the English, and/or an unusual
adjective. For a number of African countries that are not in the list, e.g.
200
8.8 Oceania: countries and regions
Ghana, Niger etc., the corresponding adjectives don’t exist or are not
commonly used.
English name Italian name Italian adjective
Algeria Alger`ıa algerino
Egypt Egitto egiziano
Ethiopia Etiopia et`ıope, (etiopico),
etiopico-
Kenia Kenia (m) keniano, keniota
Libya Libia l`ıbico
Mauritania Mauritania mauritano
Morocco Marocco marocchino
Somalia Somalia s `omalo
South Africa Sudafrica (m)/Repubblica
Sudafricana (R2–3)
sudafricano
note: Bushman =
bosc`ımano
Tunisia Tunis`ıa tunisino
8.8 Oceania: countries and regions
For some of the States of Australia there are Italian versions, which have
been included in the list next to the original English name. Apart from
Tasmania, all the States and the Territory are masculine in Italian, when
used in their English form.
note that even though Galles (=Wales) is masculine on its own, the
Italian version of New South Wales is sometimes feminine (la Nuova
Galles del Sud).
English name Italian name Italian adjective
New Zealand Nuova Zelanda neozelandese
New Guinea Nuova Guinea –
Western
Australia
Western Australia,
Australia Occidentale
westaustraliano
[westaustraljano]
South Australia South Australia, Australia
Meridionale
sudaustraliano
201
8 Geographical names
English name Italian name Italian adjective
New South
Wales
New South Wales,
Nuovo/-a Galles del
Sud
–
Northern
Territory
Northern Territory,
Territorio del Nord
–
Victoria Victoria (m) –
note: vittoriano usu
refers to Queen
Victoria
8.9 Historical or mythical places
English name Italian name Italian adjective
Aix-la-Chapelle Aquisgrana –
Alexandria Alessandria (d’Egitto) alessandrino
Antioch Antiochia antiocheno (R3)
Atlantis Atl`antide (f ) –
note: atlantico refers
to the Atlantic Ocean
Bethlehem Betlemme –
Byzantium Bisanzio bizantino
Carthage Cart`agine cartaginese, (p`unico)
Constantinople Costantinopoli –
Corinth Corinto corinzio
Damascus Damasco damasceno (R3),
damaschino
Galilee Galilea galileo
Gaul Gallia gallo, (g`allico)
Iberia Iberia ib`ero, (ib`erico),
`ıbero-
Judaea Giudea giudeo, (giud`aico)
202
8.10 Cities of the world
English name Italian name Italian adjective
Nazareth Nazaret nazareno
Smyrna Smirne smirn`eo (R3, ancient
times), smirniota (R3,
modern times)
Thrace Tracia tracio
Troy Troia troiano
note: ‘Trojan horse’ is
translated cavallo di
Troia (not cavallo
troiano)
8.10 Cities of the world
English name Italian name Italian adjective
Adelaide Adelaide [adelaide] –
Algiers Algeri algerino
Antwerp Anversa –
Athens Atene ateniese
Baltimore Baltimora –
Barcelona Barcellona –
Belgrade Belgrado belgradese
Berlin berlino berlinese
Bern Berna bernese
Cadiz C`adice gaditano (R3)
Cairo Il Cairo cairota (m pl -i,
f pl -e) (R3)
Cape Town Citt`a del Capo –
Cologne Colonia –
Dublin Dublino dublinese
Edinburgh Edimburgo –
Frankfurt Francoforte –
203
8 Geographical names
English name Italian name Italian adjective
Geneva Ginevra ginevrino
Gibraltar Gibilterra –
Hamburg Amburgo amburghese
Havana L’Avana avanese
Krakow Cracovia cracoviano
Liege Liegi –
Lisbon Lisbona lisbonese
London Londra londinese
Lyon Lione lionese
Madrid Madrid madrileno
Marseille Marsiglia marsigliese
Mexico City Citt`a del Messico –
Moscow Mosca moscovita
Munich M`onaco (di Baviera) monacense (R3)
New York New York [njujɔrk] (less
frequently Nuova York)
newyorkese
[njujorkeze],
nuovaiorchese/-kese
Nice Nizza nizzardo
note: the inhabitants
of Nizza Monferrato
(Piemonte) are called
nicesi or nizzesi
Nuremberg Norimberga –
Paris Parigi parigino
Peking/Beijing Pechino pechinese
Philadelphia Filadelfia filadelfiese (R2–3)
Piraeus Il Pireo –
Prague Praga praghese
Salzburg Salisburgo salisburghese
S˜ao Paulo San Paolo –
Seville Siviglia sivigliano
Sophia S`ofia –
204
8.12 Mountains and volcanoes of the world
English name Italian name Italian adjective
St Petersburg San Pietroburgo –
Stockholm Stoccolma –
Strasbourg Strasburgo –
The Hague L’Aia –
Tunis Tunisi tunisino
Vienna Vienna viennese
Zaragoza Saragozza –
8.11 Rivers of the world
The rivers in this table are masculine unless otherwise stated
(cf. section 14.3).
Amazon Rio delle Am`azzoni Rhone R`odano
Danube Danubio Seine Senna (f )
Euphrates Eufrate St. Lawrence San Lorenzo
Ganges Gange Tagus Tago
Indus Indo Thames Tamigi
Loire Loira (f ) Tiber T´evere
Nile Nilo Tigris Tigri
Rhine Reno Yellow River Fiume Giallo
note the adjectives tiberino, for the Tevere, and padano, for the Po river.
8.12 Mountains and volcanoes of the world
Alps le Alpi Matterhorn il (monte) Cervino
Apennines gli Appennini Mont Blanc il Monte Bianco
Appalachians gli Appalacchi Pyrenees i Pirenei
Carpathians i Carpazi Rocky Mountains le Montagne
Caucasus il Ca`ucaso Rocciose
Himalayas l’Himala`ia (m) Urals gli Urali
Kilimanjaro il Kilimangiaro Vesuvius il Vesuvio
205
8 Geographical names
8.13 Planets, stars, and constellations
With the exception of la Terra, the planets are masculine.
Earth Terra
Jupiter Giove
Mars Marte
Mercury Mercurio
Neptune Nettuno
Pluto Plutone
Saturn Saturno
Uranus Urano
Venus Venere
Aquarius Acquario
Aries Ariete (m)
Cancer Cancro
Capricorn Capricorno
Gemini Gemelli (m pl)
Leo Leone (m)
Libra Bilancia
Pisces Pesci (m pl)
Sagittarius Sagittario
Scorpio Scorpione (m)
Taurus Toro
Virgo Vergine (f )
Pole Star, North Star Stella Polare
Southern Cross Croce del Sud
Ursa Major, Big
Bear, Big Dipper
(US)
Orsa Maggiore,
Gran Carro
Ursa Minor, Little
Bear, Little Dipper
(US)
Orsa Minore,
Piccolo Carro
206
9 Abbreviations and acronyms
The abbreviations and acronyms in use in Italian are many and ever
changing. The following conventions apply generally in Italian.
For all measurements (metric, scientific etc.) the abbreviations used in
Italian follow international conventions.
Words are usually truncated after a consonant or cluster of consonants,
e.g. part.(icipio) pass.(ato). Days and months, on the other hand, are often
found abbreviated after their third letter, e.g. gio for gioved`ı, ago for
agosto. A shortened form is sometimes followed by the last letters of the
word, e.g. Gent.mo for Gentilissimo.
In acronyms, the plural is sometimes indicated in writing by doubling
the initial letter, e.g. AA VV for Autori vari; in some truncated words,
the last letter (consonant) may be found repeated, e.g. pagg. for pagine as
opposed to pag. for pagina.
The shortening of words is mainly a writing expedient and truncated
words are mostly read in their full form: Sig. is always read “signor(e).”
Acronyms, on the other hand, are pronounced and can be written as
normal nouns whenever possible, e.g. UFO, which is read “ufo” and can
be found written Ufo or ufo. In some cases, however, a letter by letter
reading is unavoidable, e.g. BBC, pronounced “bi-bi-c`ı”. There are also
some “hybrid” forms, such as CGIL (a trade union), pronounced
“ci-gi-elle,” with “gi” incorporating “i,” or RAI TV, pronounced “rai
ti-v`u.” Note that among the acronyms we can count also those word-like
abbreviations obtained by using more than just the first letter of the words
of the full denomination, e.g. (la/una) colf for collaboratrice familiare;
(la) Cariplo [kariplo], for Cassa di Risparmio delle Provincie
Lombarde. Other forms of common word-like abbreviations are
obtained by contracting the (two) most meaningful words of the full name
into one word, e.g. (la) Confindustria [konfin’dustrja], for
Confederazione Generale dell’Industria Italiana.
In most cases acronyms take articles: definite, in the case of specific
objects or organizations (e.g. la NATO, la BBC, il DNA); definite or
indefinite in the other cases (e.g. l’/un UFO, il/un CD).
Acronyms usually maintain gender and number of the head noun of the
full Italian expression, e.g.:
la Fabbrica Italiana Automobili Torino > la FIAT.
207
9 Abbreviations and acronyms
Among the very few exceptions we can count UPIM, usu feminine in
spite of its original, but all-but-forgotten meaning, Unico Prezzo
Italiano di Milano.
For foreign acronyms, gender and number are usually those of the
corresponding Italian expression, e.g.:
“organization” = organizzazione (f s) > la FAO, la NATO;
“States” = Stati (m pl) > gli USA
The “word-like” acronyms that may be used in the plural tend to
remain invariable, e.g. un Ufo, dieci Ufo.
Tables of common Italian abbreviations and acronyms
The following tables contain a small sample of the abbreviations and
acronyms commonly used in Italian. Please note the following.
The acronyms with a ‘spelling-like’ pronunciation, e.g. BBC, are
preceded by an asterisk ∗ (for the pronunciation of letters see section
12.2.2).
‘Word-like’ acronyms, e.g. UFO, are preceded by the symbol ◦. Their
pronunciation is given in the form of Italian words (to be read according
to Italian pronunciation conventions), in italics and within square brackets,
in the second column of each table.
All the other abbreviations are pronounced in their full form, as
indicated in the second column of each table.
9.1 Titles and other frequently used abbreviations
Note that, although they may be reported in lower case, all the
abbreviated titles are very often used with a capital letter, e.g. Sig.ra,
instead of sig.ra, as a (further) sign of respect.
There is no Italian equivalent of Ms (cf 14.2).
Italian meaning,
Abbreviation pronunciation English counterpart
∗ A . . . f Autostrada (+number), e.g. A 25,
pronounced a venticinque
M (UK), Motorway, Freeway
a.C. avanti Cristo BC (Before Christ)
AA. VV. Autori vari (by) various authors
∗
◦
AIDS f Sindrome di Immunodeficienza
Acquisita [aidiesse or `aids]
AIDS
avv. avvocato (+name) lawyer
◦ BOT m Buono (Ordinario) del Tesoro
[usu pl i bot]
Treasury bond
c.a. corrente anno current year
208
9.1 Titles and other common abbreviations
Abbreviation Italian meaning, pronunciation English counterpart
◦ C.A.P. m Codice di Avviamento Postale [cap]
note: in addresses, the C.A.P. is
written before the city, e.g. sig.
Bianchi, via Verdi 8, 00100
Roma
Post/Zip Code
c.d.d.;
c.v.d.
come dovevasi dimostrare;
come volevasi dimostrare
Q.E.D.
c.m. corrente mese current month, inst.
C.P. Casella Postale PO Box
c.so corso (main street, boulevard)
c/c conto corrente current/cheque/check
(US) account
c/o presso c/o
ca. circa c., ca.
cap. capitolo ch., chapter
∗ CD (ROM) m Compact disc [ci d`ı (rom)] CD (ROM)
cfr. (Lat. confer) confronta cf.
◦ colf f collaboratrice familiare [colf ] housemaid
d.C. dopo Cristo AD (note: AD year = year d.C.,
e.g. AD 79 = 79 d.C.)
∗ DNA m acido deossiribonucleico DNA
◦ DOC Denominazione d’Origine
Controllata [doc, adj, e.g. vino
doc = vino a denominazione di
origine controllata]
Wine denomination and origin
certified
dott./
dott.ssa
dottor/dottoressa (+name) title given to anyone with a
university degree
E est E (East)
ecc. eccetera etc.
Egr. egregio distinguished (in letters,
addresses)
es.; p. es. esempio; per esempio ex., example; e.g.
et al. (Lat. et alii) e altri et al.
F.lli Fratelli (+name) Bros.
G.U. Gazzetta Ufficiale Official Government Bulletin
209
9 Abbreviations and acronyms
Abbreviation Italian meaning, pronunciation English counterpart
ibid. ibidem ibid.
id. idem id.
Ill.mo Illustrissimo most illustrious (in formal letters
and addresses)
ing. ingegner (+name) engineer (used as title)
◦ IVA f Imposta sul Valore Aggiunto [iva] VAT, Value Added Tax
(=approx. GST, Goods and
Services Tax)
∗ k.o. fuori combattimento K.O., knock(ed) out
l.go largo type of “piazza”
loc. cit. (Lat. loco citato) al passo citato loc. cit.
N nord N (North)
N.B. Nota Bene (please) note, NB
N.d.A. nota dell’autore author’s note
N.d.R. nota del redattore editor’s note
N.d.T. nota del traduttore translator’s note
ND nobil donna M(r)s . . . (in mail addresses)
NH nobil uomo Mr . . . (in mail addresses)
∗ NN padre ignoto/genitori ignoti (only
in the locution figlio/-a di NN)
No; n. numero No., number
NS Nostro Signore Our Lord
ns. nostro/-a our(s) (usu = our letter)
O (also W) ovest W (West)
op. cit. (Lat., opere citato), opera citata op. cit.
p. es. per esempio e.g., for example
p., pag.;
pp., pagg.
pagina; pagine p., pp.; page, pages
p.c. per conoscenza c.c., cc. (carbon copy), copy to
P.I.L. m prodotto interno lordo GNP
∗ P.S. m postscriptum, poscritto P.S., postscript
p.v.; pv/ prossimo venturo prox., next (month)
210
9.1 Titles and other common abbreviations
Abbreviation Italian meaning, pronunciation English counterpart
p.za piazza Sq.
R.I.P. riposi(no) in pace R.I.P.
racc. raccomandata registered mail (letter)
rag. ragionier (+name) accountant, book keeper (title)
s., seg.; ss. seguente; seguenti f.; ff. (following)
s.; S. san, santo, sant’, santa St.
S.A.R. Sua Altezza Reale H.R.H.
s.l.m. sul livello del mare above sea level
∗ S.p.A. Societ`a per Azioni joint-stock company
∗ S.r.l. Societ`a a responsabilit`a limitata Ltd., limited liability company
S.S. Strada Statale National Road
S.S. Sua Santit`a H.H., His Holiness
s.v. (Lat. sub voce) sotto la voce reference in dictionaries; s.v.
S.V; SS.VV Signoria Vostra; Signorie Vostre formal “you” (s and pl)
sc. (Lat. scilicet), vale a dire viz., sc.
sig. signor (+name) Mr
sig.na signorina (+name) Miss
sig.ra signora (+name) Mrs
Soc. Societ`a Company note: “. . .& Co.”
corresponds to Italian . . . e
C. [e compagni].
Spett. spettabile dear, lit respectable (in letters and
addresses)
SS. Santissimo Most Holy
ss., SS. santi/sante SS, Saints
T Tabaccheria Tobacconist (shop sign)
◦ TAC f Tomografia Assiale
Computerizzata [tac]
CAT scan
tel. telefono tel., ph.
u.s. ultimo scorso ult., last (month)
v. vedi see; v.
v.le viale Av(e).; Blvd.
vs. vostro/-a your(s), (usu = your letter)
211
9 Abbreviations and acronyms
9.2 International organizations
Abbreviation Italian meaning, pronunciation English counterpart
∗ BBC f Ente Britannico di Radiodiffusione BBC
BCE Banca Centrale Europea ECB
CD Corpo Diplomatico CD
◦ CEE f Comunit`a Economica Europea [c`ee] EEC
◦ CIA f Agenzia Centrale d’Informazione [cia] CIA
CIO Comitato Olimpico Internazionale IOC
∗ FBI m Ufficio Federale Investigativo [pronounced
(l’) effebi`ai]
FBI
◦ FIFA f Federazione Internazionale del Calcio [fifa] FIFA
FMI m Fondo Monetario Internazionale IMF
∗ IBM f Societ`a Internazionale Macchine per Uffici IBM
◦ NATO f Organizzazione del Trattato Nord
Atlantico [nato]
NATO
∗ OLP f Organizzazione per la Liberazione della
Palestina
PLO
OMS Organizzazione Mondiale della Sanit`a WHO
◦ ONU f Organizzazione delle Nazioni Unite [onu] UNO
◦ OPEC f Organizzazione dei Paesi esportatori di
petrolio [`opec]
OPEC
◦ RAF f Aviazione militare inglese [raf] RAF
◦ SME m Sistema Monetario Europeo [lo sme] EMS
UE Unione Europea EU
UEM Unione Economica e Monetaria EMU
◦ URSS Unione delle Repubbliche Socialiste
Sovietiche [usu l’Unione Sovietica, or la
Russia (R1–2), but also l’urs]
USSR
◦ USA m Stati Uniti (d’America) [gli usa] USA
∗ WWF m Fondo Mondiale per la Natura
[pron. vu vu `effe]
WWF
212
9.3 Italian non-political organizations
9.3 Italian non-political organizations
Some of the organizations mentioned in this list are today in a state of
flux. Changes in the ownership of part or all of their corporate structures
may affect their denomination and, in some cases, their existence.
Some non-official political organizations have been included in this list
rather than the next one.
Abbreviation Italian meaning, pronunciation Explanatory notes
◦ ACLI f Associazioni Cattoliche dei
Lavoratori Italiani [le acli]
Italian Workers’ Catholic
Associations
◦ AGIP f Azienda Generale Italiana Petroli
[agip]
State oil company
A.I. Aeronautica Italiana Italian Air Force
◦ ANAS f Azienda Nazionale Autonoma delle
Strade [anas]
National roads board
∗ B.R. Brigate rosse [le bierre] Red Brigades (terrorists)
◦ CARIPLO f Cassa Risparmio Provincie
Lombarde [c`ariplo]
(Bank)
CC Carabinieri (Military police)
◦ CEI f Conferenza Episcopale Italiana [cei] Italian bishops’ Conference
∗ CL Comunione e Liberazione
[(no article) ci-`elle, i ci-ell`ıni]
(Catholic movement)
∗ CNR m Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche National research council
◦ CONI m Comitato Olimpico Nazionale
Italiano [coni]
Italian national Olympic
committee
CRI f Croce Rossa Italiana Italian Red Cross
E.I. Esercito Italiano Italian Army
◦ ENEL m/f Ente Nazionale Energia Elettrica
[enel]
State electric company
◦ ENI m/f Ente Nazionale Idrocarburi [eni] State company for hydrocarbons
FF. AA. Forze Armate Armed forces
FF. SS. Ferrovie dello Stato Italian railways
FI . . . Federazione Italiana . . . Italian federation . . . (appears in
many acronyms)
213
9 Abbreviations and acronyms
Abbreviation Italian meaning,
pronunciation
Explanatory notes
◦ FIAT f Fabbrica Italiana Automobili
Torino [fiat]
FIAT
FIGC Federazione Italiana Gioco Calcio Italian football federation
G.d.F. Guardia di Finanza Finance police
◦ IRI m/f Istituto per la Ricostruzione
Industriale [`ıri]
(The “umbrella” for state-owned
companies)
◦ ISTAT m Istituto Centrale di Statistica [`ıstat] Central institute for statistics
M.M. Marina Militare Italian Navy
∗ P.S. f Pubblica Sicurezza Police
◦ RAI (TV) f Radio-televisione Italiana
[rai (ti (v)v`u)]
State television company
◦ STANDA f Societ`a Tutti Articoli Nazionali
dell’Arredamento e Abbigliamento
[standa]
(Chain of department stores)
◦ UPIM f Unico Prezzo Italiano di Milano (Chain of department stores)
VV. UU. m Vigili Urbani Municipal traffic police
9.4 Italian official political organizations, unions etc.
In the last fifty years, the fertile world of Italian politics, with its
characteristically “hot” climate, has been particularly favorable to the
sprouting of a great variety of parties and organizations. Many of them are
often referred to in their abbreviated form, not only in writing, but also in
speech. Of these, the following table lists the most frequently mentioned,
including some that, although politically extinct or existing under
different denominations, are still linguistically alive. It should be borne in
mind that the winds of change of the last few years may well keep blowing
into the immediate future.
Abbreviation Italian meaning, pronunciation Explanatory notes
∗ AN f Alleanza Nazionale [aenne
(no article)]
National Alliance
∗ CCD m Centro Cristiano Democratico
[il cicid`ı, i democratici di centro]
Christian Democratic Center
∗ CDU m Cristiani Democratici Uniti
[il cidi`u]
Christian Democrats United
214
9.4 Italian political organizations, unions etc.
Abbreviation Italian meaning, pronunciation Explanatory notes
∗ CGIL f Confederazione Generale Italiana
del Lavoro [la cigi-`elle]
(Trade union)
◦ CISL f Confederazione Italiana Sindacati
Lavoratori [la cisl]
(Trade union)
∗ DC f Democrazia Cristiana [la dicc`ı, i
democristiani]
Christian Democrats (extinct)
∗ DS Democratici di sinistra [diesse
(no article)]
Left Democrats
◦ MSI m Movimento Sociale Italiano [il mis,
i missini]
(Extreme right-wing party now
extinct)
∗ PCI m Partito Comunista Italiano [il picc`ı,
i comunisti]
Communist Party (extinct)
◦ PLI m Partito Liberale Italiano [il pli,
i liberali]
Liberal Party
∗ PPI m Partito Popolare Italiano [il pippi-`ı,
i popolari]
Italian Popular Party
PR Partito Radicale [or i radicali] Radical Party
◦ PRI m Partito Repubblicano Italiano
[il pri, i repubblicani]
Republican Party
◦ PSDI m Partito Socialista Democratico
Italiano [il psdi (note the article),
i socialdemocratici]
Socialist Democratic Party
(extinct)
◦ PSI m Partito Socialista Italiano [il psi
(note the article), i socialisti]
Socialist Party (extinct as PSI,
resurrected as PS [partito
socialista])
◦ PSIUP m Partito Socialista Italiano di Unit`a
Popolare [il psi`up, i psiuppini (note
the articles)]
Socialist Party of Popular Unity
(extinct)
∗ UDR f Unione Democratica per la
Repubblica [l’udierre]
Democratic Union for the
Republic
◦ UIL f Unione Italiana del Lavoro [la u`ıl] (Trade union)
Some of the more frequently used Italian abbreviations are formed by
creating new words out of two from the full name. In many cases, the first
of the words involved is confederazione, which gives conf-, followed by
the word that defines the organization. The resulting abbreviations are all
pronounced and used as regular feminine nouns. The associations in this
215
9 Abbreviations and acronyms
list are generally representing the employers/owners/lessors in various
fields of the economy.
Abbreviation Italian meaning Explanatory notes
Coldiretti Confederazione nazionale
coltivatori diretti
National Small Farmers’
Federation
Confagricoltura Confederazione Generale
dell’Agricoltura Italiana
Italian Farmers’ Association
Confapi Confederazione Generale della
Piccola Industria
Italian Small Manufacturers’
Federation
Confartigianato Confederazione Generale
dell’Artigianato Italiano
Italian Artisans’ Federation
Confcommercio Confederazione Generale del
Commercio
Italian Traders’ Federation
Confedilizia Confederazione Italiana della
Propriet`a Edilizia
Italian House Owners’ Federation
Confindustria Confederazione Generale
dell’Industria Italiana
Italian Manufacturers’ Federation
216
10 Latin expressions and sayings
Some of the most common Latin expressions in use in today’s Italian are
listed in the following tables. (See also section 9.1 for Latin abbreviations.)
note that, in the Italian tradition, Latin is pronounced according to
the rules of modern Italian, except for the diphthongs “ae” and “oe,” read
[ε] – e.g. ex aequo [ε zεkwo/εksεkwo] – and the group “ti” followed by
vowel, which is pronounced [tsj] – e.g. a fortiori, [a fortsjɔri]. In particular,
“h” is always silent – e.g. ad hoc [ad ɔk] - and “j” is pronounced [j] – e.g.
Juventus [juvεntus].
10.1 Latin expressions
For some of these expressions the boundary between Latin and Italian is
somewhat blurred, at least in most speakers’ perception. In a case like nota
bene, the argument in favour of an Italian reading is quite strong (to the
point that this expression has not been included here as Latin); in others,
such as grosso modo, the confusion arises from their widespread use and
the existence of similar Italian words.
The following expressions are used as adjectives and/or adverbs, unless
otherwise indicated. An English explanation of the Italian use of each
expression has been given. A common Italian alternative has also been
provided whenever available.
The symbol # indicates a similar use of the same expression in
English, whereas the exclamation mark ! warns that there are differences
between Italian and English in their use of the same (or similar) Latin
expression.
217
10 Latin expressions and sayings
Latin Register Italian English
# a fortiori R3 a maggior ragione even more so
# a posteriori R3 basato/basandosi
sull’esperienza; dopo il fatto
based on experience; after the
event; with the benefit of
hindsight
#! a priori (R3) basato/basandosi sulla
ragione; prima del fatto
but usu (R2) = senza dati
di fatto
based on reason (not experience);
before the event;
without the support of facts
#! ad hoc R2–3 (fatto) apposta/per
l’occasione
for the purpose
# ad libitum R3 a piacere at will
#! alter ego R2–3 (m) sostituto perfetto another self
cum grano
salis
R3 con discernimento with a grain of salt
#! deus ex
machina
R2–3 (m) a person whose intervention resolves an intricate situation
ex abrupto R3 all’improvviso suddenly
ex aequo R2 a pari merito, alla pari, e.g.
secondi ex aequo
equals
# ex cathedra R3 said of authoritative statements, esp by the pope in matter of faith,
e.g. parlare ex cathedra
ex novo R2–3 da capo all over again
ex voto R2–3 (m) said of objects donated to churches “per grazia ricevuta,”
often in fulfilment of a vow
# gratis (et
amore Dei)
gratuito, gratuitamente free of charge
grosso
modo
all’incirca, pi`u o meno roughly, more or less
! in extremis all’ultimo momento
e.g. salvarsi in extremis
at the last minute
note the difference from
the English use (= in an
extreme case)
in nuce R3 in sostanza in substance
#! interim R3 (m) this term describes the period of vacancy of a particular office, as
well as the appointment to temporarily fill it (accettare
l’interim degli Interni = to accept a temporary
appointment as Minister of Internal Affairs)
218
10.1 Latin expressions
Latin Register Italian English
! ipso facto R3 subito, immediatamente immediately
lapis (m) matita pencil
lapsus (m) sbaglio, distrazione slip (of the pen/tongue)
mea culpa R2–3 (m) ammissione di colpa;
e.g. fare (il) mea culpa
acknowledgment of one’s faults;
“to acknowledge one’s
faults”
# modus
vivendi
R2–3 (m) accomodamento arrangement
mutatis
mutandis
R2–3 fatti i dovuti cambiamenti with the necessary changes
non plus
ultra
(m) (il) massimo; e.g. `e il
non plus ultra
the top, the best, the “ne plus
ultra”
# persona non
grata
R3 (f ) persona non gradita unwanted person
pro bono
pacis
per quieto vivere for the sake of peace
! quiproquo R2–3 (m) equivoco misunderstanding
note the difference from
quid pro quo (not used in
Italian)
rara avis R3 (f ) said of person (or thing) that’s exceptional for some good
quality
! sine qua non R2–3 imprescindibile;
e.g. una condizione sine
qua non
essential
note: used as a noun in
English
! statu quo
(ante)
R2–3 (m) situazione di fatto status quo
ultra [ultra]
(through
French)
(n inv) estremista (usu in
politics or sport)
extremist (politics); fanatical
supporter (sport)
Via Crucis (f ) la Via della Croce;
(fig) calvario
Way of the Cross;
(fig) calvary
# viceversa (adv) all’inverso
(conj.) e invece
the opposite way
and instead
219
10 Latin expressions and sayings
10.2 Latin proverbs and mottoes
A number of Latin sayings are quite common, in Italian, at the higher
registers.
beati monoculi in
regno/terra caecorum
R3 In the land of the blind,
happy those who have one
eye
carpe diem seize the day
de gustibus non
disputandum
R2–3 don’t argue about tastes
divide et impera R2–3 divide and rule
errare humanum est
(perseverare diabolicum)
R2–3 to err is human (to persevere
in error is diabolical)
excusatio non petita
accusatio manifesta
R3 an unsolicited apology is an
obvious self-accusation
gutta cavat lapidem R3 the droplet hollows out the
stone
homo homini lupus R2–3 man is wolf to his fellow
man
in vino veritas in wine (there is) truth
mens sana in corpore
sano
R2–3 a sound mind in a sound
body
risus abundat in ore
stultorum
R3 laughter abounds in the
mouths of fools
(scripta manent) verba
volant
R3 (written words stay,) spoken
words fly
summum ius, summa
iniuria
R3 the more law, the more
injustice
talis pater talis filius R2–3 like father like son
220
11 Grammatical terms
11.1 Grammatical terms (termini grammaticali)
The following is a list of common grammatical terms.
Categories shared by adjectives and pronouns (e.g. possessivo) have
only been listed once, under aggettivo.
fonologia
morfologia
sintassi
phonology
morphology
syntax
accento (t `onico)
accento (grafico)
tonico (adj)
`atono (adj)
parola tronca
stress
stress mark
stressed (syllable)
unstressed (syllable)
word stressed on last syllable (e.g. citt`a)
parola piana word stressed on second-last syllable
(e.g. ball´etto)
parola sdr ` ucciola word stressed on third-last syllable
(e.g. m`acchina)
parola bisdr ` ucciola word stressed on fourth-last syllable
(e.g. tel`efonano)
parola trisdr ` ucciola word stressed on fifth-last syllable
(e.g. rec`apitamelo)
The gender of nouns is
given only where it is
not predictable from the
principles given in
ch. 14.
In some words, an
accent is used to
indicate the main stress
but should not be used
when writing. See
p. 29.
221
11 Grammatical terms
aggettivo
qualificativo (adj)
dimostrativo (adj)
possessivo (adj)
indefinito (adj)
(grado) comparativo
(grado) superlativo
adjective
qualifying
demonstrative
possessive
indefinite
comparative
superlative
articolo
determinativo (adj)
indeterminativo (adj)
article
definite
indefinite
avverbio adverb
congiunzione conjunction
genere (m)
maschile (adj)
femminile (adj)
gender
masculine
feminine
nome (m)
comune (adj)
proprio (adj)
collettivo (adj)
astratto (adj)
concreto (adj)
sostantivo
noun
common
proper
collective
abstract
concrete
noun (the original form nome
sostantivo is obsolete)
numero
singolare (adj)
plurale (adj)
number
singular
plural
per`ıodo
proposizione
indipendente (adj)
principale (adj)
dipendente (adj)
secondaria (adj)
subordinata (adj)
frase (f )
sentence
clause
independent
main
dependent
dependent
dependent/subordinate
sentence; phrase (e.g. frase
preposizionale)
preposizione
semplice (adj)
articolata (adj)
preposition
simple (e.g. di)
articulated (e.g. della)
pronome (m)
personale (adj)
relativo (adj)
pronoun
personal
relative
222
11.1 Grammatical terms
sillaba
consonante (f )
vocale (f )
dittongo
syllable
consonant
vowel
diphthong
soggetto
complemento oggetto
oggetto diretto
oggetto indiretto
subject
direct object
direct object
indirect object
suffisso
accrescitivo (adj)
diminutivo (adj)
vezzeggiativo (adj)
peggiorativo (adj)
suffix
augmentative
diminutive
of endearment
pejorative
verbo
transitivo (adj)
intransitivo (adj)
riflessivo (adj)
di`atesi
attivo (adj)
passivo (adj)
modo
finito (adj)
indicativo
congiuntivo
condizionale (m)
imperativo
indefinito (adj)
infinito
participio
gerundio
verb
transitive
intransitive
reflexive
voice
active
passive
mood
finite
indicative
subjunctive
conditional
imperative
non-finite
infinitive
participle
gerund
tempo
semplice (adj)
presente
futuro
imperfetto
passato remoto
composto (adj)
passato prossimo
futuro anteriore
tense
simple
present (e.g. amo etc.; ami
etc.)
future (e.g. amer`o etc.)
imperfect (e.g. amavo etc.;
amassi etc.)
simple past, past definite (e.g.
amai etc.)
compound
present perfect, usu not
translated (e.g. ho amato
etc.)
future perfect (e.g. avr `o
amato etc.)
223
11 Grammatical terms
trapassato prossimo
trapassato remoto
congiuntivo passato
congiuntivo trapassato
condizionale passato
persona
pluperfect, past perfect (e.g.
avevo amato etc.)
pluperfect, past perfect/anterior
(e.g. ebbi amato etc.)
past/perfect subjunctive
(e.g. abbia amato etc.)
pluperfect subjunctive (e.g.
avessi amato etc.)
past conditional (e.g. avrei
amato etc.)
person
11.2 Punctuation marks (Segni di punteggiatura)
The symbol @ in e-mail addresses is called chi ` occiola (lit snail ).
The symbol # (hash) is called cancelletto (lit little gate).
The symbol & (ampersand) is not common in Italian, but is called ‘e’
commerciale.
note that punto e virgola is masculine as a whole: un/il punto e
virgola.
Italian mark English
accento acuto
accento grave
´
`
acute accent (on closed
e [e] and o [o])
grave accent (on a, i, u and
on open e [ε] and o [ɔ])
ap` ostrofo ’ apostrophe
asterisco ∗ asterisk
due punti : colon
lineetta — dash (also used to separate
direct speech)
parentesi (f inv)
parentesi tonde
parentesi quadre
parentesi graffe
( )
[ ]
{ }
bracket
round brackets
square brackets
double brackets, curly
brackets
puntini di sospensione
puntini puntini (R1–2)
. . . suspension marks,
dot dot dot
punto . full stop, period (US);
point (numbers); dot
(e-mail)
224
11.3 Other common terms and expressions
Italian mark English
punto e virgola ; semicolon
punto esclamativo ! exclamation mark
punto interrogativo ? question mark
sbarra/barra inversa \ back slash
sbarretta / slash
trattino - hyphen
v`ırgola , comma
virgolette (basse)
virgolette (alte)

“ ”
quotation marks (used for
direct speech)
inverted commas (generally
used to isolate and/or
highlight one or more
words; tra virgolette = in
inverted commas)
virgolette singole ‘ ’ single inverted commas
(used as the double
inverted commas, but less
frequently)
11.3 Other common terms and expressions
Italian mark English
(lettera) mai` uscola
(lettera) min` uscola
capital letter
small letter
in neretto, in grassetto
in corsivo
corsivo
bold
italic
italics
par`agrafo
capoverso
a capo
andare a capo
§ paragraph (= subheading)
beginning of a paragraph,
paragraph (in a text)
new paragraph
to start a new paragraph
225
12 Numerals and telephone conventions
12.1 Numerals and mathematical conventions
12.1.1 Decimals
In Italian, as a rule, the punto (point) separates thousands, the v`ırgola
(comma) decimals, e.g. 1.000.000 = un milione; 23,42 = ventitr´e
virgola quarantadue/ventitr´e e quarantadue (centesimi). note that
the English reading twenty-three point four two has no direct equivalent in
Italian (ventitr´e virgola quattro due is not used). However, it should be
pointed out that the use of the decimal point, if not practiced, is certainly
widely understood in Italy, especially in the scientific world.
For the sake of clarity, the Anglo-American conventions (i.e. decimal
point) have been applied throughout this text, even in Italian contexts.
12.1.2 Mathematical operations
When doing operations, the following Italian expressions are worthy of
notice:
in sums (addizioni), in everyday casual speech “plus” can be simply e,
and “equals” is omitted, e.g. 2 + 3 = 5 due e tre cinque (R1–2), rather
than due pi `u tre `e uguale a (R2–3)/fa cinque. Cf. the idiom in
quattro e quattr’otto (“in the twinkling of an eye”).
in divisions (divisioni), “divided by” becomes diviso, e.g. 8 : 2 = 4 otto
diviso due `e uguale a (R2–3)/fa quattro
in ratios (proporzioni), English “is to” becomes Italian sta a, e.g. 4 : 6 =
6 : 9 quattro sta a sei come sei sta a nove
in raising to a power (elevazione a potenza), “squared” is translated al
quadrato, “cubed” al cubo, and, generally, “to the nth power” becomes
all’ennesima (potenza), e.g. 33 tre al cubo/alla terza (potenza)
12.1.3 Ordinal numbers
The usual notation is [Arabic numeral]o, which is acceptable also for the
feminine and the plural, where strictly speaking a/i/e should be used. It is
nonetheless advisable to use the agreement, esp in the singular, e.g. Carlo
226
12.2 Telephone conventions
fa la 4a (classe) elementare (“Carlo is in 4th grade”). As an alternative
to the Arabic notation, in some cases Italian can simply use the
corresponding Roman numeral (without o/a/i/e and usu after the noun),
e.g. Carlo fa la IV elementare. This is common practice with kings,
queens, popes, emperors, e.g. Luigi XIV (quattordicesimo), and often
centuries; e.g. il secolo XIV (or il 14o secolo) = the fourteenth century.
Following the French, some of the kings Louis of France are sometimes
mentioned (in R3) with a cardinal, rather than ordinal, number, e.g. Luigi
tredici/quattordici/quindici/sedici.
12.2 Telephone conventions
12.2.1 Telephone numbers
In recent years, area codes have become, in Italy, an integral part of
telephone numbers and must always be dialed including the initial zero,
even when ringing from abroad. Verbally, the area code is often given digit
by digit, whereas the numbers that follow are said in pairs or one by one
(with pauses after every three/two digits). One way of reading the number
06 9876543 could therefore be zero sei; nove otto sette,
sessantacinque (or sei cinque), quarantatr´e (or quattro tre).
12.2.2 Telephone alphabet
In order to avoid confusion, when spelling names or words, especially but
not only on the telephone, a conventional “telephone alphabet” is used.
Every Italian letter is assigned the name of a town or city. The non-Italian
letters (j, k, w, x, y) have one foreign word each, though in most cases
their distinctive names are clear enough.
The ‘telephone’ alphabet can be used to:
specify a letter, e.g. A come Ancona (cf. English ‘A for/as in apple’)
spell a word, e.g. Padova, Empoli, Roma, Torino, Hotel spells
“Perth.”
With the exception of k (usu m, possibly to avoid confusion with
cappa (f = cloak; hood [in fireplaces etc.]), the letters of the alphabet are
usu considered feminine (see chapter 14 “Gender”).
Italian British American
A a Ancona Andrew Abel
B bi Bologna Benjamin Baker
C ci Como Charlie Charlie
D di Domodossola David Dog
E e Empoli Edward Easy
F effe Firenze Frederick Fox
227
12 Numerals and telephone conventions
Italian British American
G gi Genova George George
H acca Hotel Harry How
I i Imola Isaac Item
J i lunga Jersey Jack Jig
K cappa Kursaal King King
L elle Livorno Lucy Love
M emme Milano Mary Mike
N enne Napoli Nellie Nan
O o Otranto Oliver Oboe
P pi Padova Peter Peter
Q cu Quarto Queenie Queen
R erre Roma Robert Roger
S esse Savona Sugar Sugar
T ti Torino Tommy Tare
U u Udine Uncle Uncle
V vi/vu Venezia Victor Victor
W vu doppia/doppia
vu (less common vi
doppia/doppia vi)
In acronyms, w is
pron vu, e.g. BMW
[bi εmme vu]; www
[vu vu vu]
Washington William William
X ics xeres Xmas X
Y i greca or ipsilon yacht or York Yellow Yoke
Z zeta [dzεta] Zara Zebra Zebra
228
13 Measurement
The metric system is universally used in Italy. With the notable
exception of the internationally adopted miglio marino/nautico
(nautical mile) and the nodo (knot = 1 nautical mile an hour), the existence
of Italian translations for most imperial (or American) terms (such as
p`ollice for “inch”) does not necessarily entail knowledge of the
corresponding value by the native Italian speaker. In order to avoid
confusion, it is therefore advisable, when translating imperial or American
measurements from English, to turn them into or give an indication
of their metric equivalents. The following tables of conversion
include both precise and rounded-up values. While the first set
might of course be necessary in some circumstances (e.g. in the fields of
science and technology), in most everyday situations the approximate
equivalences will be quite adequate. A measurement of “4 in.” will
therefore be translated into (circa) 10 centimetri (rather than 10,156
centimetri), and so on.
All words ending in -grammo are stressed on the second-last syllable
(e.g. centigr`ammo), whereas all the words with -metro and -litro are
stressed on the third-last syllable (e.g. cent`ımetro, cent`ılitro), although it
is not uncommon to hear millil`ıtro instead of mill`ılitro. Note that the
prefix kilo- is often spelt chilo- in Italian, even though the letter k is
regularly used in the abbreviations.
For the sake of simplicity, the numbers have been written according to
Anglo-American conventions.
In some words, an
accent is used to
indicate the main stress
but should not be used
when writing. See
p. 29.
229
13 Measurement
13.1 Length (Lunghezza)
Standard conversion table
1 inch un pollice = 2.539 cm
1 foot un piede = 30.480 cm 1 cm = 0.3937 in
1 yard una iarda = 91.440 cm 1 m = 3.2808 ft
1 fathom un braccio = 1.8288 m 1 m = 1.093 yd
1 mile un miglio terrestre = 1.6093 km 1 km = 0.6214 mi
1 nautical mile un miglio marino = 1.853 km
1 league una lega = 5.559 km
Approximate equivalences
10 cm ≈ 4 in
50 cm ≈ 112
ft
1 m ≈ 1 yd (3 ft)
100 m ≈ 100 yds
10 km ≈ 6 miles
100 km ≈ 60 miles
Examples
Height una bambina di/alta novanta centimetri = a child 3 feet tall
un uomo di/alto un metro e ottanta = a man 6 feet tall
una montagna alta 4000 metri = a mountain 13,000 feet high
Speed cento chilometri all’ora = 60 miles an hour
Expressions of length, width, height, depth, thickness
lunghezza questo ponte ha una lunghezza di tre chilometri (R2–3)
questo ponte `e di tre chilometri (di lunghezza); `e un ponte di
tre chilometri (di lunghezza)
questo ponte `e lungo tre chilometri; `e un ponte lungo tre
chilometri
questo ponte `e tre chilometri (R1)
larghezza questa strada ha una larghezza di dieci metri (R2–3)
questa strada `e di dieci metri di larghezza; `e una strada di
dieci metri di larghezza
questa strada `e larga dieci metri; `e una strada larga dieci metri
230
13.2 Weight
altezza quest’albero ha un’altezza di sei metri (R2–3)
quest’albero `e di sei metri (di altezza); `e un albero di sei metri
quest’albero `e alto sei metri; `e un albero alto sei metri
note: l’aereo `e a mille metri di altezza/altitudine (R2–3);
l’aereo `e a un’altezza (R1–2)/ una quota/un’altitudine
(R2–3) di mille metri
profondit`a questo lago ha una profondit`a di venti metri (R2–3)
questo lago `e profondo venti metri; `e un lago profondo venti
metri
note; qui l’acqua `e alta (R1–2)/profonda (R2–3) tre metri
qui la neve `e alta un metro/qui c’`e un metro di neve
spessore questa tavola ha uno spessore di tre centimetri
questa tavola `e di tre centimetri di spessore; `e una tavola di tre
centimetri di spessore
questa tavola `e spessa tre centimetri; `e una tavola spessa tre
centimetri
note: in all the above expressions, the specifications di lunghezza, di
larghezza, di altezza, di spessore can be left out when contextually
obvious.
13.2 Weight (Peso)
The units chilogrammo (kg) and ettogrammo (hg) are very common
in everyday life and are usually shortened, respectively, to chilo and etto
(pl chili, etti), e.g. mi d`a due etti e mezzo di prosciutto, per
piacere? (“could you please give me 250g [half a pound] of Parma
ham?”). As regards heavier weights, the quintale (q = 100 kg) is very
popular, even though with a recent ruling the EU has “outlawed” such
use in official contexts, in favour of the tonnellata (t = 1000 kg)
Standard conversion table (Avoirdupois)
1 oz un’oncia = 28.349 g 1 g = 0.03527 oz
1 lb una libbra = 453.592 g
1 stone = 6.3507 kg 1 kg = 2.20462 lbs
1 cwt (UK) = 50.802 kg
1 cwt (US) = 45.359 kg 1 t = 0.9842 tons
1 ton una tonnellata inglese = 1016.047 kg 1 t = 1.1023 tn.sh
1 short ton una tonnellata americana = 907.185 kg (1 metric ton/1 tonne)
231
13 Measurement
Approximate equivalences
100 g (un etto) ≈ 4 oz
14
kg
2 12
hg (due etti e mezzo) ≈ 12
lb
250 g
}
12
kg ≈ 1 1b
1 kg ≈ 2 lb
6 kg ≈ 1 stone
100 kg (un quintale) ≈ 16 stones; 220 lb
Examples
un etto di burro = 4 oz of butter
una donna di sessanta chili = a 10-stone woman
un uomo di un quintale = a 16-stone man; a 220-pound man
13.3 Area (Area or superficie [f R2–3])
Standard conversion table
1 sq in un pollice quadrato = 6.45159 cm2 1 cm2 = 0.1550 sq in
1 sq ft un piede quadrato = 929.028 cm2
1 sq yd una iarda quadrata = 0.8361 m2 1 m2 = 10.7639 sq ft
1 sq mile un miglio quadrato = 2.59 km2 1 km2 = 0.3861 sq miles
259 ha
1 acre un acro = 4046.8 m2 10,000 m2 = 1 ha = 2.4711 acres
= 0.40468 ha (un `ettaro)
Approximate equivalences
6 cm2 ≈ 1 sq in 1 ha (un `ettaro) ≈ 2 12
acres
1 m2 ≈ 1 sq yd 50 ha ≈ 125 acres
1,000 m2 ≈ 14
acre 250 ha (= 2 12
km2) ≈ 1 sq mile
Examples
un’azienda agricola di quaranta ettari = a 100-acre farm
100 ettari (= 1 km2) di foresta = 250 acres of forest
232
13.5 Capacity (liquid)
13.4 Volume (Volume [m])
Standard conversion table
1 cubic inch un pollice cubico/cubo = 16.387 cm3 1 m3 = 35.314 cu ft
(un metro cubo)
1 cubic foot un piede cubico/cubo = 0.02832 m3
1 cubic yard una iarda cubica/cuba = 0.76455 m3
13.5 Capacity (liquid) (Capacita` )
Standard conversion table
1 gill (UK) = 0.142051
(US) = 0.11831
1 pint una pinta (UK) = 0.568231 1 l = 1.7598 pt (UK)
(US) = 0.47321 (un litro) = 2.1134 pt (US)
1 quart un quarto (UK) = 1.136461
(US) = 0.94641
1 imperial un gallone inglese (UK) = 4.545961
gallon
1 gallon un gallone americano (US) = 3.78531
1 barrel un barile (UK) = 1.6365 h1
(US) = 1.1922 h1
Approximate equivalences
1 litro ≈ 2 pints 24 litri ≈ 5 gallons (UK)
4 litri ≈ 1 gallon 24 litri ≈ 6 gallons (US)
Examples
la mia macchina fa (pi `u di)
17 chilometri con un litro
(R1–2)
my car does 50 (miles) to the
gallon (UK)/40 (miles) to the
gallon (US)
9 chilometri con un litro
(R1–2)
mezzo litro di birra
25 to the gallon (UK)/21 to the
gallon (US)
a pint of beer
233
13 Measurement
13.6 Currency (Valu` ta or moneta corrente)
From the unification of Italy until 2002, the Italian currency was the lira
(£ or LIT). The use of cent`esimi (= cents, lit hundredths) disappeared after
the Second World War with inflation. At the beginning of 2002 the lira
and 11 other European currencies were replaced by the euro [εuro] (m
inv). Euros come in coins of (monete da) 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 cents
(centesimi) and 1 and 2 euros (euro), as well as notes of
(banconote/biglietti da) 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500 euro. Officially,
1 euro is worth 1936.27 old lire: when switching from the old currency
to the new, a factor of 2000 therefore gives a good approximation, e.g.:
5 centesimi ≈ 100 lire; 10 euro ≈ 20 000 lire; 500 euro ≈ 1 million
lire.
13.7 Temperature (Temperatura)
Conversion formulae and tables (gradi cent`ıgradi/Celsius (R3) – gradi
Fahreneit):
◦F = 95
◦
C + 32 ◦C = 59
(◦F – 32)
General Body temperature
◦F ◦C
−4 −20
0 −17.8
5 −15
14 −10
23 −5
32 0
41 5
50 10
59 15
68 20
77 25
◦F ◦C
86 30
95 35
104 40
113 45
122 50
131 55
140 60
158 70
176 80
194 90
212 100
◦F ◦C
105.8 41.0
104.9 40.5
104.0 40.0
103.1 39.5
102.2 39.0
101.3 38.5
100.4 38.0
99.5 37.5
98.6 37.0
97.7 36.5
96.8 36.0
234
13.8 Time
13.8 Time (Tempo)
The 24-hour system is used for official business (timetables, television
programmes etc.). Similarly, the use of quindici, trenta,
quarantacinque, cinquanta, cinquantacinque (implying minuti)
instead of, respectively, un quarto, mezzo/mezza (R1–2), tre
quarti/meno un quarto, meno dieci, meno cinque smacks of
bureaucratic officialdom. In everyday informal speech the twelve-hour
system is used, if necessary with the specifications di/della mattina or
del mattino (usu 2am–11am), di/del pomeriggio (usu 2pm–6pm),
di/della sera (usu 5pm–11pm), di/della notte (usu 1am–2am). The use
of these specifications may vary according to the season: for instance, the
pomeriggio tends to be longer in the summer. “Midday” (12pm) is
mezzogiorno, “midnight” (12am) is mezzanotte.
235

THE CLAUSE – combining words

14 Gender
All Italian nouns are either masculine or feminine.
14.1 Gender and sex
14.1.1 Persons
Nouns referring to persons of the male sex tend to be masculine, nouns
referring to persons of the female sex tend to be feminine. There are,
however, a number of exceptions. It should be remembered that
agreement of adjectives and past participles with nouns is generally based
on grammatical gender, not natural sex.
Masculine nouns with possible female referents
Most are job titles for which a feminine form is not in use. They are nouns
relating to:
professions, e.g. medico doctor, ingegnere engineer, falegname carpenter
positions or ranks within an organization or a team, e.g. consigliere board
member, sergente sergeant, portiere goalkeeper
note also
soprano, mezzosoprano, contralto, which in the singular are
sometimes used in the feminine (la soprano etc.) when referring to
actual female singers rather than to voice ranges.
Feminine nouns with possible male referents
Notable among the most common are:
guardia guard, sentinella sentry, r`ecluta recruit, vittima victim, guida
guide, spia spy, canaglia rascal
In some words, an
accent is used to
indicate the main stress
but should not be used
when writing. See
p. 29.
239
14 Gender
note that in uncertain or (potentially) mixed contexts, masculine is the
“default” gender in Italian, e.g.:
Quanti figli hai? How many children/boys do you have?
Quanti fratelli ha Carlo? How many siblings/brothers does Carlo have?
Ambiguity can be avoided by for example referring to figli maschi as
opposed to figlie femmine in the first instance, to fratelli e sorelle in
the second.
14.1.2 Animals (see also ‘Noises of animals’ in chapter 3)
The great majority of animals are commonly referred to by using a
“default” term. This applies, in both singular and plural, when the sex of
the animal is not an issue or is unknown, especially when there are no
obvious differences between the male and the female of the species. These
nouns can be masculine, e.g. gatto, cane, topo, elefante, leopardo, or
feminine, e.g. volpe, lepre (usu f ), balena, pecora, pantera.
note the possible differences between Italian and English where, in R1, a
cat may be sometimes generically referred to as a “she”, and a fox or a
hare as a “he.”
It is also possible to specify the sex of an animal. Often there are distinct
masculine and feminine forms to indicate the male and the female of the
species (see section 14.2). If no specific form exists, the generic term
denoting the animal may be followed, in R2–3, by “maschio” or
“femmina,” which in this case are invariable. The grammatical gender of
the whole expression is that of the original term, e.g. un rinoceronte
maschio/femmina, molti rinoceronti maschio/femmina; una
volpe maschio/femmina, molte volpi maschio/femmina. In
scientific contexts (R3) it is also possible to refer to ‘the male/female of
the particular species’, e.g. il maschio/la femmina del rinoceronte. In
some cases a suffix may allow, in R1, to specify the sex of certain animals,
e.g. scoiattolino/scoiattolina.
14.2 Formation of masculine/feminine pairs
Nouns referring to people or animals often have different forms to
distinguish between males and females. Some pairs of nouns are quite
unrelated in form, but in most cases the only difference between the
masculine and their feminine counterpart is in the ending, with some
characteristic patterns of correspondence.
Due to the ever increasing presence of women at all levels in society,
including fields that have traditionally been the exclusive domain of men,
the issue of gender in language has acquired sociopolitical implications. In
linguistic terms, this has led to some confusion in the use of titles related
to jobs, professions, positions, ranks, etc. With most professions and
240
14.2 Formation of masculine/feminine pairs
positions, the tendency is to leave the title in the masculine, especially in
formal contexts, e.g. Lia Bo, Professore di Fisica Nucleare, or
l’Ambasciatore d’Italia, signora Bo, etc. A female minister in
government may be la ministra or il ministro, but the latter is much
more common. In some cases, beside a grammatically feminine form, an
analytic expression has been coined, e.g. donna poliziotto (beside
poliziotta), donna pilota (beside pilota f ). The feminine of some titles
can also traditionally mean “wife of the title holder” (cf English “queen”),
e.g. ambasciatrice or presidentessa, and/or might have joking or
mocking connotations, e.g. sindachessa, medichessa.
Adjectives and participles tend to agree with the natural sex of the
person if the person is named, regardless of any other words referring to
the person (cf. section 16.1), e.g.:
L’avvocato Giulia Bongiorno, uno dei legali di Giulio
Andreotti, `e crollata sulla sedia.
The lawyer Giulia Bongiorno, one of Giulio Andreotti’s legal advisers,
collapsed onto her chair.
It is common to use the definite article when referring to prominent
women, but not men, by their surname, e.g. la Maraini. With men this
practice is usually reserved for artistic and cultural figures of recognized
fame, e.g. il Leopardi. The use of the definite article with given names is
common in the North, especially with feminine names, e.g. la Chiara.
Use of the article with masculine names, e.g. il Giuseppe, is R1. The
practice of including both genders in generic cases by giving both
ending of adjectives etc. (cf. English he/she etc.) is not widely followed,
e.g. Ogni collega che `e interessato/a; lo/la studente; lo/la
studente/-essa.
The title signore is used for all adult men, married or single. The form
signorino is considered old-fashioned and is used jocularly to refer to
young boys. The titles signora and signorina are used for women of all
ages. There is no Italian equivalent of Ms (cf. section 9.1).
14.2.1 Unrelated m–f nouns
Some rather common pairs belong to this category:
Persons
maschio–femmina; uomo–donna; marito–moglie; padre–madre;
pap`a/babbo–mamma; fratello–sorella; frate–suora; genero–nuora;
celibe–nubile (both R2–3), single man–woman, and, to a certain extent,
scapolo–zitella bachelor–spinster
Animals (in square brackets the castrated male, when applicable)
fuco/pecchione–ape; montone/ariete/[castrato]–pecora;
porco/verro (R3)–scrofa; toro/[bue/bove]–mucca/vacca.
241
14 Gender
14.2.2 Related m–f nouns – anomalous m–f correspondence
Persons
dio–dea; re–regina; eroe–eroina; zar–zarina; stregone–strega
witch-doctor – witch; abate–badessa abbot–abbess; doge–dogaressa
Animals (in square brackets the castrated male, when applicable)
cane–cagna; gallo/[cappone]–gallina
14.2.3 Related nouns – patterns of m–f correspondence
Endings
m f Notes Examples
-a -a in most cases (see also section
14.4 and section 15.1 for pl)
pediatra; pianista; ipocrita;
atleta; eremita; idiota; collega
-essa only a handful of notable
cases
duca–duchessa; poeta–poetessa;
profeta–profetessa;
papa–papessa
–e -a most nouns in -ere cameriere–cameriera
note: in some cases the
feminine indicates an object
caffettiere caf´e
proprietor–caffettiera coffee-maker
most nouns in -one padrone–padrona;
pasticcione–pasticciona
bungler
very few cases in -ese, -ore
(including -tore)
marchese–marchesa;
signore–signora;
pastore–pastora;
impostore–impostora
-e most nouns in -ese, -ante,
-ente, and others
milanese; comandante;
cantante; insegnante; agente;
dirigente; cliente; testimone;
nipote; consorte (R3) spouse
-essa very few cases in -ante mercante–mercantessa
including one animal elefante–elefantessa
two notable cases in -ente studente–studentessa;
presidente–presidentessa
(or presidente, R2–3)
few notable case in -ore, professore–professoressa
including two in -tore dottore–dottoressa;
fattore–fattoressa (note:
fattrice = brood cow/mare)
242
14.3 Gender associated with types of noun
Endings
m f Notes Examples
a few notable cases in -one barone–baronessa
including some animals leone–leonessa;
pavone–pavonessa (or pavona)
peacock
other notable cases principe–principessa;
generale–generalessa;
oste–ostessa inn-keeper;
sacerdote–sacerdotessa
-tore -trice very common attore–attrice;
senatore–senatrice;
traditore–traditrice (or
traditora)
-(s)sore -ditrice usu avoided, very few nouns
actually used
possessore–posseditrice;
trasgressore–trasgreditrice;
difensore–difenditrice
-o -a very common, also animals bambino–bambina; gatto–gatta
-essa few nouns diacono–diaconessa;
avvocato–avvocatessa (avvocata
for saints); orco–orchessa oger;
soldato–soldatessa;
druido–druidessa
sometimes mocking in tone deputato–deputatessa (instead of
deputata) member of parliament;
medico–medichessa;
filosofo–filosofessa (instead of
filosofa); diavolo–diavolessa
14.3 Gender associated with types of noun
In many cases the noun or name belonging to the categories sampled in
the tables below simply reflects the gender of the “generic” noun that
identifies the category itself, e.g. masculine in the case of oceano, mare,
fiume, aeroplano, colore, orologio, etc., and feminine in the case of
citt`a, isola, nave, lettera, etc. In fact, many geographic names are usu
accompanied by their generic definition, e.g. il lago Maggiore, il Mare
del Nord, il Monte Bianco, though this is not the case for the
geographic names in the table, which can all be used without the
corresponding noun, e.g. il (fiume) Tevere, il (lago di) Garda.
243
14 Gender
Mostly masculine
Type of noun Examples (Some) exceptions
Geographic
oceans, seas Atlantico, Mediterraneo la Manica the Channel
lakes Garda, Trasimeno, Titicaca –
rivers Tevere, Po, Nilo, Tamigi
Thames, Danubio, Mississipi
Dora, Senna Seine, Loira,
Neva, Moldava, Vistola
mountains (not chains);
volcanoes
Cervino Matterhorn, Everest;
Vesuvio, Etna
Maiella, Marmolada
Time
days; months; years luned`ı; gennaio; il 2000 only domenica
Transportation
lorries, trucks un (camion) Mercedes –
aeroplanes un jumbo, il Concorde, lo
Spitfire, un Boeing 747
–
Food and drink
cheeses il gorgonzola, il pecorino, il
parmigiano, lo stilton, il
camembert, il gruviera (m inv,
but also f )
mozzarella, scamorza,
caciotta, ricotta, fontina,
robiola, provola
wines il barolo, uno chardonnay, il
barbera (usu m, but also f )
malvas`ıa, vernaccia, albana
Other
colors il rosa, il blu –
languages, dialects l’italiano, il milanese –
metals; elements il bronzo, l’acciaio; l’idrogeno ghisa cast iron
musical notes il do, il la, un si –
numbers, marks il sette, un trenta –
other parts of speech
used as nouns
il tu, il s`ı, il perch´e, il bere, il
nulla, i se, i ma, un non so che
trees il melo, l’olivo, l’abete fir tree, il
pino, l’eucalipto
quercia, palma, tamerice,
vite grapevine, iacaranda,
sequoia, acacia, robinia
watches un Rolex, uno Swatch –
Mostly feminine
Type of noun Examples (Some) exceptions
Geographic
cities Milano, Napoli, Londra,
Berlino, New York (cf. the
old-fashioned Nuova York)
il Cairo, il Pireo Piraeus
note: with some cities, the
masculine indicates a local
football club, e.g. il Napoli
islands Sicilia, Capri, Giava, Cipro il Madagascar, il Borneo
244
14.4 Gender associated with noun ending
Mostly feminine
Type of noun Examples (Some) exceptions
Transportation
cars una Ferrari, una Ford, una
Mercedes
some cars may be referred to in
the masculine (R1), e.g. Carlo
s’`e fatto il Mercedes Carlo got
himself a Merc
ships la Pinta, la Michelangelo, la
Queen Elizabeth, l’Enterprise
the exceptions possibly imply
masculine nouns, such as
transatlantico, e.g. il Titanic,
il Rex, il Lusitania
Other
abstract qualities bellezza, bruttezza, bont`a,
cattiveria
qualities ending in -ore, e.g.
grigiore grayness, candore
whiteness, innocence, splendore
radiance, beauty
cameras una Polaroid, una Nikon –
companies (see also
chapter 9)
la Telecom Italia, la Lancia,
la Ford, la IBM
–
fruit mela, pera, banana, pesca,
susina plum, nettarina, uva,
mora blackberry
many exceptions: lampone
raspberry, fico; many citrus
fruits, e.g. arancio (more
common than arancia),
limone, pompelmo grapefruit,
mandarino; many exotic
fruits, e.g. d`attero date, ananas
pineapple, mango, kiwi (inv)
letters of Roman
alphabet (also m, but
less common)
la C, una M un K (usu); also: Greek
letters usu masculine, e.g. pi
greco ()
school years la prima first year of (primary)
school, la terza media eighth year
can be m when accompanied
by ginnasio or liceo, e.g. il
quarto ginnasio
sciences la matematica, la fisica il diritto law
14.4 Gender associated with noun ending
The indications given in this section are based on singular endings (for
plural formation see section 15.1) and do not necessarily apply to proper
names, or to compound (see section 14.5) or suffixed nouns.
245
14 Gender
Unstressed vowel (including monosyllabic words)
-a generally feminine, with the following notable exceptions (besides those in
section 14.3):
pianeta, col`era, gorilla, duca, papa, boia executioner, d`espota (R2–3),
pirata (usu m), stratega (also f ), poliglotta (R2–3 also f ), camerata
comrade (usu fascist, also f )
many nouns ending in -ma, mostly of Greek derivation, e.g. problema,
tema, dramma, programma, linfoma, clima, sistema, panorama;
among the exceptions: asma, gomma, fiamma, arma, rima, norma,
forma, calma, crema, somma, firma, tarma, trama, lacrima
some nouns imported from other languages, e.g. pigiama, mantra (inv),
lama (inv) or derived from verbal forms, e.g. vaglia (inv) money order, or
pronouns, e.g. nulla (inv), or proper names, e.g. barabba (inv) rogue
some (R1/R1∗) nouns of dialectal origin, e.g. pirla (R1∗ Milan, inv)
prick, ghisa (R1 Milan, inv) traffic warden
some nouns with the following endings are masculine when referring to
males:
-arca meaning ‘leader’, e.g. patriarca (only m), monarca (only m),
oligarca; such nouns are seldom feminine, with the exception of
matriarca (only f )
-iatra meaning “doctor”, e.g. pediatra, psichiatra
-ista many nouns, e.g. artista, giornalista, ottimista
-asta e.g. ginnasta, cineasta, pederasta (only m)
-eta e.g. atleta, analfabeta illiterate, asceta, anacoreta (R3) anchorite;
note: poeta and profeta are only m (see section 14.2.3)
-ita e.g. semita, eremita, vietnamita, all derived from adjectives and
usu indicating belonging or affiliation to peoples, religions, cults, etc.;
note: parassita is feminine only when referring to women
-ota e.g. patriota, pilota, cipriota, idiota, similar meanings but fewer
nouns than the above category
-nauta very few nouns, e.g. astronauta
-euta very few nouns, e.g. terapeuta
-cida e.g. omicida killer; chemicals with this ending are only masculine,
e.g. erbicida, germicida
-e masculine or feminine, but the following subcategories are worthy of
notice:
-ere masculine, whether persons (usu “doers”), e.g. cassiere, or things,
e.g. carcere jail; exceptions are polvere, cenere
-ore masculine, whether persons (usu “doers”), e.g. attore, scrittore,
pittore, or things, e.g. colore, dolore; exception: f ´ olgore (f ) flash of
lightning
-tr`ıce feminine, usu “doers,” e.g. attrice, scrittrice, pittrice
-sione/-zione generally feminine, e.g. confusione, emozione (note
that this does not necessarily apply to compound nouns, e.g.
capostazione [m] station-master, or possible “alterati”, e.g. negozione
[m] big shop)
246
14.4 Gender associated with noun ending
-i mostly masculine: many imports, e.g. samurai, sci, and compounds (see
section 14.5), e.g. saliscendi, millepiedi, portabagagli; beside the
rather technical cisti (f R2–3) cyst, colecisti (f R3) cholecyst and endiadi
(f R3) hendyadis, a most notable exception is the whole category of nouns
ending in
-si mostly feminine, e.g. crisi, tesi, with very few exceptions, e.g.
brindisi
(m) toast
-o mostly masculine, with the following notable exceptions:
mano, dinamo, virago (R3, pl viragini); eco (less common m s; only
m pl)
soprano, contralto, mezzosoprano (sometimes f, usu m s, only m pl)
elliptic expressions, e.g. squillo from ragazza squillo call-girl
abbreviated forms of feminine nouns, e.g. radio, auto, moto, foto
note: the abbreviated form of videocassetta (f ) is video (m), which is
also the abbreviation for videoregistratore (m) videorecorder
-u masculine, very few nouns altogether, many of them monosyllabic, mostly
imported from other languages, e.g. urdu, gnu; exception: gru (f ) crane
Stressed vowel
-`a generally feminine, e.g. onest`a, citt`a, with few exceptions, e.g. sci`a
shah, baccal`a stockfish, lill`a lilac, pap`a, podest`a, taffet`a
-`e generally masculine; very few nouns (often from French), e.g. caff`e,
bid`e, gil`e waistcoat, vest; some exceptions, e.g. koin`e (f R3)
-´e masculine; besides perch´e used as a noun, a handful of French
derived nouns, e.g. scimpanz´e (often pronounced with -`e), variet´e
variety show; only exception pans´e (f ) pansy (also pronounced with –`e)
-`ı mostly masculine; very few nouns, e.g. suppl`ı rice croquette, tass`ı,
colibr`ı; notable exception: pip`ı (f ) wee-wee
- `o masculine; few nouns (many of which are adaptations from French),
e.g. palt `o coat, com`o chest of drawers, pedal `o pedal boat, rond`o, fal `o
bonfire
- ´o no nouns
- `u mostly masculine (often from other languages), e.g. bamb`u, cuc`u,
caucci `u; important exceptions are the Latin-derived giovent `u, schiavit `u
slavery, servit `u servitude, servants, virt `u, trib `u, and the modern tiv`u/
tivv`u TV
Consonant (including -y)
Generally masculine (mostly nouns from other languages), e.g. bar,
camion, virus. Among the common feminine nouns in this group
(beside those listed in the tables above) are e-mail (usu f ), viacard type of
motorway credit card, glasnost, (bottiglia) molotov Molotov cocktail,
vamp.
note: Internet is usu m (and without article).
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14 Gender
14.5 Gender of compound nouns
14.5.1 Verb + noun
Most compound nouns belong to this category, their typical (singular)
form being a second person singular imperative followed by a noun in the
singular or plural. They are mostly masculine, as shown in detail below.
Persons
As with non-compound nouns, the gender of V + N compound nouns
referring to persons may reflect the sex of the referent. In the great
majority of cases this will only show in a change of article, the actual noun
being invariable, e.g.:
un/una perdigiorno idler, un/una voltagabbana turncoat, un/una
rubacuori charmer, un/una raccattapalle ball boy/girl
In some cases, especially with nouns relating to activities traditionally
carried out by men, the feminine is not used in practice, but it is still
possible in theory, e.g.:
un/(una?) taglialegna woodcutter, uno/(una?) spazzacamino
chimney-sweeper, un/(una?) guardalinee linesman, linesperson
Animals
Very few V + N nouns refer to animals. They appear to be masculine,
without a form for the female. As usual in these cases, their feminine is
formed by adding femmina, e.g.:
un beccafico/un beccafico femmina garden warbler, un
succiacapre/un succiacapre femmina nightjar, goatsucker
Objects etc.
For the great majority of the other cases, V + N compound nouns are
masculine, e.g.:
il caricabatteria battery charger, il fermacarte paper-weight, il
passatempo pastime, il battipanni carpet-beater
Notable exceptions are some nouns referring to some domestic
appliances, e.g.:
la lavabiancheria (less common than lavatrice) washing machine, la
lavapiatti/la lavastoviglie dishwasher
- some nouns referring to ships, e.g.
la portaerei aircraft-carrier, la portaelicotteri helicopter-carrier
note: rompighiaccio ice-breaker is usually masculine
- and a few more where a feminine noun (indicated in brackets) might be
implied, e.g.:
la (macchinetta) mangiasoldi slot-machine, lit money-eater (m/f when
referring to persons), la (pistola) scacciacani (also m) blank pistol
248
14.5 Gender of compound nouns
14.5.2 Noun + noun
Persons
There is a good number of N + N compound nouns referring to persons,
many of them of the kind capo + noun. They usually reflect the sex of
the person they refer to. The change of gender usually shows only in the
article, since the second noun is in most cases gender-invariable, e.g.
il/la capofamiglia head of the family, il/la capoufficio head clerk.
There are a few cases where the second noun, and therefore the
compound noun, has a distinct feminine form, e.g.:
il caporedattore/la caporedattrice editor-in-chief, il capocuoco/la
capocuoca head-cook, il sordomuto/la sordomuta deaf-mute,
and a few cases where, as seen elsewhere, the masculine is still the only
gender in use, for traditional or historical reasons, e.g.
il capocomico manager of a theatre company, il capomastro master
builder.
Animals
There are not many common animal nouns in this category. Their gender
tends to reflect the gender of the head noun, which in the majority of the
cases appears to be masculine, e.g.:
il pescecane shark, il pescespada swordfish, il gattopardo serval, ocelot,
il toporagno shrew.
Among the very few feminine nouns, la volpoca R3, sheld-fowl,
whereas grillotalpa mole cricket can be masculine (more common in the
singular) or feminine (esp in the more common plural grillotalpe). In all
cases there seem to be no distinct forms for the opposite sex: “a female
shark” will therefore be un pescecane femmina.
Objects etc.
In most cases, the gender of all the other N + N compounds tends to
reflect the gender of the noun perceived as the “head” of the expression
corresponding to the compound noun. While practically irrelevant in the
case of compounds formed by nouns of the same gender, e.g.:
autostrada (f ) motorway, cassapanca (f ) box seat, cinemateatro (m)
cinema-theater, capolavoro (m) masterpiece,
this becomes important in the case of “m + f” or “f + m” nouns, e.g.:
agopuntura (= puntura [f ] con aghi) feminine acupuncture
bagnoschiuma (= schiuma [f ] per il bagno) feminine bubblebath
capolinea (= capo [m] della linea) masculine terminus
fondovalle (= fondo [m] della valle) masculine bottom of the valley
pallacanestro (= palla [f ] a canestro) feminine basket-ball
pallavolo (= palla [f ] a volo) feminine volley-ball
acquascooter (= scooter [m] acquatico) masculine jetski
cartamodello (= modello [m] di carta) masculine paper pattern
249
14 Gender
There is a number of cases that do not seem to follow this pattern, or
whose “head noun” is not easily identifiable, e.g.:
il centrodestra/-sinistra center-right/left), il mappamondo (globe), il
crocevia crossroads.
14.5.3 Noun + adjective/adjective + noun
Only compounds where the noun is the head of the phrase and is
therefore modified by the adjective are considered here. Compounds like
terrapieno embankment (lit full of earth) are not included, whereas those
like terracotta (lit cooked earth) are.
Persons
There is a tendency to reflect the gender of the person the noun refers to.
This can be done through the article, e.g.:
un/una quattrocchi (R1) four-eyes, un/una pellerossa lit redskin
or, in A + N cases, when the noun allows it, morphologically, e.g.:
granduca/graduchessa, gentiluomo/gentildonna
Some compounds are still only used in the masculine, e.g. un piedipiatti
(R1) flatfoot, although nothing, except custom, seems to prevent their use
in the feminine. On the other hand, la buonanima the dear departed is
feminine even when referring to males.
Animals
These are not common and usually describe a physical characteristic of the
animal in question. The gender of the compound is usually the same as
the noun component, e.g. il pettirosso robin, lit red breast, but there are a
number of cases where this does not apply, e.g. la capinera blackcap, lit
black head. The plural noun compounds millepiedi and centopiedi are
both masculine.
Apart from il/la purosangue thoroughbred, which distinguishes
between male and female, the other N + A/A + N nouns referring to
animals must use the maschio/femmina addition.
Objects etc.
For the majority of the remaining N + A/A + N compounds the gender
tends to be the same as that of the noun component, e.g.:
il granturco maize, corn, la cartapesta papier-mˆach´e, il mezzogiorno,
la mezzanotte.
14.5.4 Other compounds
These include V + V, A + A, and compounds with adverbs, pronouns,
prepositions, more than two components, etc.
250
14.5 Gender of compound nouns
Persons
On the whole, the gender of the compound will reflect the sex of the
person it refers to, e.g. il/la fuorilegge outlaw, il/la nullatenente
propertyless (person), il/la senzatetto homeless person, il/la tuttofare jack of
all trades/maid of all work. Whenever the final element of the compound
makes it possible, the gender will show in the ending, e.g. bianconero/-a
Juventus supporter, maleducato/-a impolite person. However, some words
maintain the original gender of the head noun regardless of the sex of the
referent, e.g. la controfigura double (in acting).
Animals
The number of animal denominations in this category is too small to allow
the identification of patterns of any kind.
Objects etc.
Compounds that do not have a noun component or that do have a verb
component tend to be masculine, e.g.:
il saltimbocca kind of meat dish, il bagnasciuga shoreline, il
toccasana cure-all, il parapiglia hubbub, il nontiscordardim´e
forget-me-not, il chiaroscuro, il pianoforte, il benservito
testimonial; among the exceptions, la lavasciuga washer-dryer, la
tagliacuce cutting-sewing machine, il/la sempreverde evergreen (also
adj), la caldarrosta roast chestnut, which implies castagna.
In all other compound nouns the gender tends to be the same as that of
the noun, if this is the head of the phrase, e.g.:
capodanno (= capo [m] dell’anno) masculine
manodopera (mano [f ] d’opera) feminine
controcanto (= canto [m] contro) masculine
controproposta (= proposta [f ] contro) feminine
soprannome (= nome [m] in pi `u) masculine
soprattassa (= tassa [f ] in pi `u) feminine
sottoprodotto (= prodotto [m] derivato) masculine
sottoveste (= veste [f ] sottostante) feminine
retrogusto (= gusto [m] che segue) masculine
retromarcia (marcia [f ] indietro) feminine
When the noun is not the head of the phrase, the gender of the compound
tends to be masculine, even if the noun component is feminine, e.g.:
dopobarba (= dopo la rasatura della barba) masculine
dopoguerra (= dopo la guerra) masculine
doposcuola (= dopo la scuola) masculine
entroterra (= dentro la terra) masculine
fuoripista (= fuori dalla pista) masculine
fuoristrada (= fuori dalla strada) masculine
oltretomba (= oltre la tomba) masculine
sottobottiglia (= sotto la bottiglia) masculine
251
14 Gender
sottogola (= sotto la gola) masculine
sottopancia (= sotto la pancia) masculine
sottoscala (= sotto la scala) masculine
note the difference between
il retroscena (= dietro la scena), masculine, backstage activity, and
la retroscena (= la scena dietro), feminine, backstage.
Among the compound nouns that do not follow this pattern:
retrobottega (backshop) and retrocucina (scullery) can be both
masculine or feminine, probably because they allow two interpretations.
controluce can be masculine (esp with regard to photos etc. taken
contro la luce), or feminine (when the stress is on the type of lighting,
luce contro)
fuoriserie is feminine, probably because it implies automobile or
macchina or vettura.
14.6 Homonyms distinguished by gender
The following is a sample of Italian homonyms distinguished, at least in
the singular, by their gender.
Masculine Feminine
boa (inv) boa constrictor; feather boa buoy
caccia (inv) fighter plane; destroyer hunt
camerata male fascist comrade dormitory; female fascist comrade
capitale capital (econ.) capital (city)
cappa (inv) the letter “k” cloak, cape, e.g. cappa e spada =
cloak and dagger; hood (as in
fireplaces etc.); also, less
common, the letter “k”
finale end, ending; finale final (sport, competitions)
fine end = goal, purpose, outcome; note:
lieto fine = happy ending; il fine
settimana = the week-end
end = conclusion
fonte only in il fonte battesimale = the
christening font
fountain, source (also fig)
fronte front (military, political, weather) forehead, brow
gamma (inv) third letter of the Greek
alphabet
range, spectrum; gamut, scale
genesi (R3) Genesis (book of the Bible) genesis
granata (inv) color garnet; supporter or player of
the Torino football team
broom; grenade
morale morale morals, morality; moral (of a story
etc.)
252
14.7 Nouns with both masculine and feminine plurals
Masculine Feminine
moto motion; movement; physical exercise,
e.g. fare un po’ di moto = to take
some exercise; uprising (R2–3)
(inv) short for motocicletta =
motorbike
noce walnut tree, wood walnut
pianeta planet chasuble (R3)
radio radius (bone) (R3); radium (inv) radio, wireless
rosa (inv) color pink rose
via (inv) start, starting signal, e.g. dare il
via = to give the starting signal
road, street, path; way
volante steering wheel flying squad
14.7 Nouns with both masculine and feminine plurals
A small number of masculine nouns in -o boast two plural forms, a regular
form in -i and an “exceptional” feminine form in -a, a relic of the plural
ending of the original Latin neuter noun. Between the two forms there is,
at times, a difference in meaning, as shown in the sample below.
Note that in some cases, the -a ending indicates a “set” [e.g. le
lenzuola = top and bottom sheets of a bed] as opposed to a collection of
separate items [e.g. quattro lenzuoli di misura diversa = four sheets of
different sizes]. In these cases, the form in -i is more likely to be associated
with extended or figurative meanings of the word.
braccio (arm)
braccia human arms; units of length
bracci fig, generally of things, e.g. i bracci di una
croce = the limbs of a cross; i bracci di un
penitenziario = the wings of a penitentiary
budello (only fig, dark and narrow passage; hose, pipe)
budella intestines (also budelle [R1])
budelli (fig) dark and narrow passages; hoses, pipes
calcagno (heel)
calcagna heels (fig): e.g. avere qu alle calcagna = to
have sb at one’s heels
calcagni heels (lit)
cervello (brain, brains)
cervella (R3) brains (= cerebral matter, cf. the idiom farsi
saltare le cervella = to blow one’s brains
out)
cervelli brainy people, geniuses
253
14 Gender
ciglio (eyelash; edge of a road, a ravine, a ditch and similar)
ciglia eyelashes; (= sopracciglia) eyebrows
cigli edges (of roads, ravines, ditches, and similar)
corno (horn)
corna horns (of animals, in sets)
corni horns (musical instruments, and fig, e.g. i
corni di un dilemma)
cuoio (leather)
cuoia only in idioms like tirare le cuoia
(R1–2) = to kick the bucket
cuoi leathers, hides (lit)
dito (finger)
dita fingers (in sets)
diti (less frequent) fingers (considered separately)
filo (thread)
fila threads (taken collectively, only in some
expressions, e.g. le fila di una congiura
= the threads of a plot)
fili threads (lit, e.g. fili di cotone = cotton
threads; fili elettrici = electric wires; fili
d’erba = blades of grass)
fondamento (foundation)
fondamenta foundations (lit, e.g. le fondamenta di una
casa)
fondamenti foundations (fig = fundamental principles,
e.g. i fondamenti di una teoria)
fuso (spindle; time zone)
fusa only in fare le fusa = to purr (like a cat)
fusi spindles; time zones
gesto (gesture)
gesta exploits, feats, glorious deeds
gesti gestures
ginocchio (knee)
ginocchia knees, esp in sets, e.g. sedersi sulle
ginocchia [less common sui ginocchi]
di qu = to sit on sb’s knees
ginocchi knees, esp not as a set, e.g. mi fanno male i
ginocchi
grido/urlo (cry, scream)
grida/urla cries, screams (of people)
gridi/urli cries, screams (esp of animals)
labbro (lip)
labbra lips (lit)
254
14.7 Nouns with both masculine and feminine plurals
labbri lips (fig, e.g. i labbri di una ferita = the
lips of a wound)
lenzuolo (bed sheet)
lenzuola sheets (gen, esp in sets)
lenzuoli sheets (considered separately)
membro (limb; member)
membra (R2–3) limbs (e.g. le membra superiori = the
upper limbs, the arms)
membri members (e.g. i membri del Parlamento)
muro (wall)
mura walls (as a set, esp the fortified walls of a city
or a fortress)
muri walls (considered separately, the walls of a
house)
osso (bone)
ossa bones (in sets, e.g. le ossa della mano =
the bones of the hand, and also in some
idioms, e.g. essere pelle e ossa = to be
skin and bone)
ossi bones (considered separately, esp of
butchered animals)
Though obviously not belonging to the same category, we include
here
r`eni (m) kidneys, the regular plural form of r`ene (m)
(kidney) (often pronounced r´ene, r´eni)
r´eni (f ) loins, (lower) back, from Lat. renes, plural of
ren (kidney)
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15 Number
15.1 Formation of plurals
The following description covers the most productive categories of nouns
(and adjectives) in Italian. However, there are many exceptions and the
student should check with a good dictionary if in doubt.
Regular plurals
Singular Plural
-a (f ) -e la casa > le case
-a (m) -i il problema > i problemi
-e (m/f) -i l’insegnante > gli/le insegnanti
-o (m) -i il libro > i libri
-o (f ) -i la mano > le mani, l’eco > gli echi
Nouns with c or g in the final syllable
The stress is often a guide to forming the plural, though there are many
exceptions.
In some words, an
accent is used to
indicate the main stress
but should not be used
when writing. See
p. 29.
256
15.1 Formation of plurals
Singular Plural
-ca, -ga (f ) -che, -ghe la bottega > le botteghe
-ca, -ga (m) -chi, -ghi il patriarca > i patriarchi
-co, -go (m) -chi, -ghi when stress on penultimate syllable:
il cuoco > i cuochi
but amici, nemici, greci, porci, etc.
-ci, -gi when stress on third-to-last syllable:
il medico > i medici
but incarichi, v`alichi, pr` ofughi, etc.
-logo, -fago -logi, -fagi names of persons:
il politologo > i polit ` ologi,
l’antropofago > gli antrop` ofagi
-loghi, -faghi names of things:
il dialogo > i di`aloghi
il sarcofago > i sarc` ofaghi
-cia, -gia -cie, -gie when stress on the i:
la bugia > le bugie
-cie, -gie when stress on the preceding syllable
and a vowel comes before the c or g:
la camicia > le camicie
-ce, -ge
(less common -cie, -gie)
when stress on the preceding syllable and
a consonant comes before the c or g:
la provincia > le province
Nouns in -io
When the stress is on the i, the plural is -ii. When the stress is on the
preceding syllable, the plural is -i, e.g.:
lo zio > gli zii; il bacio > i baci
but il tempio > i templi
Nouns in -ista, -cida, and -iatra
These have one singular form and two plural forms, e.g.:
il giornalista > i giornalisti, la giornalista > le giornaliste
il suicida > i suicidi, la suicida > le suicide
lo psichiatra > gli psichiatri, la psichiatra > le psichiatre
Invariable nouns and adjectives
those ending in an accented vowel, e.g.:
la citt`a > le citt`a, il caff´e > i caff`e, la virt `u > le virt `u
monosyllables:
il re > i re
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15 Number
foreign words (adding s is now rather old-fashioned or used for effect):
il film > i film, la star > le star
words which are abbreviations of other words or acronyms (cf. chapter 9),
e.g.:
il cinema > i cinema; la lampo (= la chiusura lampo) > le lampo;
l’ufo > gli ufo
nouns ending in i or ie:
la crisi > le crisi, il brindisi > i brindisi, la serie > le serie
(but la moglie > le mogli, la superficie > le superfici or superficie)
certain masculine nouns ending in a:
il gorilla > i gorilla, il sosia > i sosia
proper names are usually invariable:
i Conversano the Conversano family, or Mr and Mrs Conversano;
i signori Conversano Mr and Mrs Conversano
note: in R3 a given name may be used in the plural to refer to
paintings produced by that person, e.g.:
due splendidi Tiziani two splendid paintings by Titian
and Le tre Marie is the name of restaurants and bakeries in several
Italian cities
letters of alphabet:
una emme > due emme
Common exceptions
l’ala > le ali; l’arma > le armi; il bue > i buoi; il dio > gli dei
See section 14.7 for nouns that change gender in the plural.
15.2 Plural of compound nouns
The plural of compound nouns formed from other nouns and/or
adjectives generally follows the above rules, when the compound is felt to
be a word in its own right, e.g.:
l’autostrada > le autostrade
il pescecane > i pescecani
l’altoparlante > gli altoparlanti
but il purosangue > i purosangue, la mezzaluna > le mezzelune
In higher registers, both elements may sometimes be pluralized, e.g.:
il pomodoro > i pomodori, pomidoro or pomidori (R3); la
cassaforte > le cassaforti, casseforti (R3).
Nouns beginning with capo- follow the normal rules, except when
capo- means “person in charge of something.” In this case, masculine
nouns pluralize only the capo part of the word, and feminine nouns are
invariable, e.g.:
il capolavoro > i capolavori (also capoluoghi, capoversi, etc.)
il capopartito > i capipartito (also capistazione, capigruppo,
capiscuola, etc.)
la capopartito > le capopartito, le caposquadra, etc.
258
15.3 Italian plurals, English singulars
When one noun follows another, acting as an adjective, it does not change
in the plural, e.g.:
la conferenza stampa > le conferenze stampa
cf. la (chiusura) lampo > le lampo
Compound nouns formed with a verb as first element (they are usually
masculine) form their plural according to what the second element is.
Those formed with a masculine singular noun or with -mano form a
regular plural, and others are invariable:
Masculine singular il passaporto > i passaporti
il parafulmine > i parafulmini
“Mano” l’asciugamano > gli asciugamani
Feminine singular lo scioglilingua > gli scioglilingua
il portacenere > i portacenere
Plural il cavatappi > i cavatappi
il guastafeste > i guastafeste
Verb il dormiveglia > i dormiveglia
15.3 Italian plurals which correspond
to English singulars
i bagagli luggage, baggage
dare un sacco di botte a
qu
to give sb a hiding
i capelli hair
i compiti homework
essere in buone
condizioni
to be in good condition
in contanti in cash
le conoscenze (also in sg) knowledge
i dati
(il dato
data (used both as sing and pl in English)
datum (in science))
dare le dimissioni to tender one’s resignation
Buone Feste Merry Christmas (and Happy New Year)
le mie forze my strength
le forze dell’ordine the police force
i funerali (R3) also il
funerale
funeral
le informazioni
(una informazione
information
an item of information)
le intemperie (R3) bad weather
con gli interessi with interest (financial), abundantly (gen)
le mie letture my reading
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15 Number
i mezzi pubblici public transport
le munizioni ammunition
le nozze (R2–3) wedding, nuptials
le posate cutlery
le Poste (R1–2) Post Office, postal service
fare dei progressi to make progress
i reumatismi (R3) rheumatism
le ricerche
(una ricerca
research
a research project)
i rifiuti rubbish
le sciocchezze
(una sciocchezza
nonsense
a silly thing, piece of nonsense)
i soldi money
gli spaghetti sono pronti the spaghetti is ready
a mie spese, a spese di at my expense, at the expense of
gli spiccioli loose change
le stoviglie (R3) crockery
le tenebre (R3) darkness
i vestiti clothing, clothes
nelle vicinanze di in the vicinity of
i viveri food, provisions
15.4 Italian singulars which correspond to
English plurals
l’archivio archives
l’avena oats
la bilancia (weighing) scales
il formicol´ıo pins and needles
la gente people
la merce goods
il morbillo measles
il pantalone (R3, fashion) trousers
il pigiama pyjamas
la pinza, also pl pincers
la scala stairs
la statistica set of statistics; statistics as a subject
la tattica tactics
l’uva
un chicco d’uva = a grape
grapes
note la fisica (physics), la linguistica (linguistics), la politica (politics)
etc., whose English forms appear to be plural but are grammatically
singular.
260
15.5 Number concord
15.5 Number concord
Collective nouns
More formal usage requires agreement with the singular collective noun,
but in informal usage the plural noun causes the verb to go into the plural,
e.g.:
Una folla di uomini, donne e bambini era (R2–3) / erano
(R1–2) sulla strada.
All’interno c’era (R2–3) / c’erano (R1–2) una decina di persone.
La maggior parte dei deputati era (R2–3) / erano (R1–2)
d’accordo con la proposta.
However, if the noun following the collective noun is in the singular, the
verb is in the singular, e.g.:
La maggior parte della popolazione era d’accordo con la
proposta.
Some words, when used in a collective way, have lost their literal meaning
and usually take a plural verb (the singular is R2–3), e.g.:
C’erano un sacco di tifosi alla stazione.
Per fare ci`o sono necessari un mucchio di soldi.
Some singular nouns that refer to groups of people may take a singular or
plural verb in English, but always take a singular verb in Italian, e.g.
comitato, famiglia, polizia, squadra:
Il comitato era contrario alla proposta.
The committee was/were opposed to the proposal.
Essere
Essere is used in the plural if there is a plural noun on either side of it, and
it also agrees with a first or second person element if there is one, e.g.:
Il problema sono gli studenti.
I rappresentanti siete voi.
La presidente sei tu.
Chi `e stato? - Sono stato/stata io.
Either/or, neither/nor
o . . . o takes a verb in the singular (less commonly in the plural) if the
two items mentioned are singular, otherwise in the plural, e.g.:
O l’uno o l’altro mi va bene.
Secondo me, vinceranno o gli italiani o i tedeschi.
n´e . . . n´e takes a verb in the plural (but may be in the singular if the
subject follows), e.g.:
N´e Matteo n´e Chiara vanno alla festa.
Non siamo andati n´e io n´e mia moglie.
Non `e arrivato n´e il capo n´e il suo vice.
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16 Pronouns
There are two forms of personal pronouns in Italian: unstressed
(or “conjunctive” or “clitic”) and stressed (or “disjunctive” or “free”).
Subject pronouns are stressed only; object pronouns have two forms:
stressed and unstressed.
Stressed pronouns are used for emphasis or contrast, or to remove
ambiguity. Thus subject pronouns, which are always stressed, are usually
not used except for these reasons. They are much more common in
informal conversation than in writing. Stressed object pronouns are
used like nouns, e.g. they follow verbs and are always separate from
them.
16.1 First- and second-person pronouns
Note these combinations of subject pronouns:
tu ed io; io e te (R1–2)
The following forms are dialectal in origin and are found in R1:
subject pronouns: te (Center)
subject and object pronouns: mi, ti, noialtri, voialtri (Northern)
When mi, ti, ci, vi are direct objects, a following past participle tends not
to agree except in more formal usage, e.g.:
Ciao Maria! Non ti ho visto alla festa! (Non ti ho vista, R2–3)
With Lei, when used as a second-person pronoun, participles and
adjectives tend to agree with the sex of the person in question (cf. section
14.2), but in formal registers participles (but less so adjectives) may agree
with the gender of the pronoun, e.g.:
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
262
16.2 Third-person pronouns
Ah, dottor Rossi, non L’ho visto ieri sera alla riunione! (L’ho
vista, R3)
16.2 Third-person pronouns
Stressed forms
The most commonly used stressed forms are lui, lei, loro. Other forms
are still used in more formal registers, especially written: egli (R2–3)/ ella
(R3) refer to persons; essa, essi and esse (R2–3) refer to persons, animals,
or things; esso (R3) refers only to animals or things. All of these pronouns
can be used as stressed object forms, except egli and esso. However, there
is some uncertainty about the appropriate use of these forms, and in
informal speech it is common to use a demonstrative (quello etc.) to refer
to things.
Direct object (unstressed)
The unstressed direct object forms are lo, la, li, le. Lo also functions as a
kind of neutral pronoun in referring to an entire clause and is often not
translated in English, e.g.:
La nostra squadra vincer`a sicuramente. – Chi lo dice? – Non lo
so.
Our team will win for sure. – Says who? – I don’t know.
With the verb essere and similar verbs, lo replaces a complement of the
verb (noun, adjective – of either gender or number – or phrase), e.g.:
Lei `e una persona interessante, lo `e sempre stata.
She is an interesting person, she always has been.
Alcune di queste persone sono nate povere, altre lo sono
diventate per qualche disgrazia.
Some of these people were born poor, others became (poor) through
some misfortune.
Per dire no alla guerra siamo in piazza oggi come lo siamo
stati l’anno scorso.
To say no to war we are in the streets today like we were last year.
La is used in many idioms: see section 4.5.1.
Indirect object (unstressed)
The indirect object forms are gli and le (singular) and gli (plural) as well
as ci and ne. Gli is preferred to stressed loro in informal usage and,
increasingly, in more formal registers as well. Gli is also used in place of
feminine singular le in informal usage, especially in Central Italy, but this
is considered ungrammatical.
Ci
Ci is traditionally used for reference to animals or things (as well as being
first person plural). It is often used in R1 in place of gli or le for reference
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16 Pronouns
to people, as a way of simplifying the range of pronouns in use and also
because most dialects use one form for all indirect object reference to
persons, animals, and things. This usage is considered incorrect in Italian,
with the exception of certain uses where ci does not correspond to a
phrase with a but to some other preposition, e.g.:
Non ci puoi contare [ci = su di lui]
You can’t rely on him.
On the other hand, gli and le are being used more and more for reference
to animals and also things, and it may be that ci is being restricted to its
adverbial uses (e.g. non ci sono mai stato, where ci = in quel
luogo).
Non ci capisco niente [ci = di ci `o].
I can’t understand anything (of it).
Non ci faccio niente [ci = con ci `o].
I can’t do anything with it.
Ci is universally used in the expressions ce l’ho, non ce l’ho, etc., and in
R1–2 is often used with avere meaning “to possess,” e.g.:
C’ho una fame! (R1–2)
I’m so hungry!
It also combines with a number of common verbs to change the meaning,
sometimes considerably (cf. section 4.5.3), e.g.:
volerci to be necessary
metterci to take (a period of time)
entrarci to be relevant
vederci to be able to see
sentirci to be able to hear
Ne
Ne is used for reference to persons, animals, things, and also to a previous
sentence. It corresponds to a phrase introduced by di or da (see also
section 4.5.2), e.g.:
Chiara `e partita l’anno scorso e non ne ho avuto pi `u notizie.
Chiara left last year and I have not had any news of her.
Siamo arrivati a Roma la mattina e ne siamo partiti la sera.
We arrived in Rome in the morning and left (from there) in the
evening.
Mi assicurava che parlava con il direttore domani, ma ne
dubito.
He assured me he would talk to the manager tomorrow, but I doubt it
(lit of it).
Ne is also used with a partitive meaning and is often untranslated in
English. In this case it may require agreement with a past participle in a
compound tense. Usage varies widely, though in general agreement
occurs when there is no object following the verb, e.g.:
Hai comprato delle banane? – S`ı, ne ho comprate.
Did you buy any bananas? – Yes, I bought some.
264
16.3 Order of object pronouns
and when the verb is followed by a numeral or indefinite pronoun of
quantity, e.g.:
Hai comprato dei limoni? – S`ı, ne ho comprati tre.
Did you buy any lemons? – Yes, I bought three.
Hai comprato delle mele? – S`ı, ne ho comprate molte / ne ho
comprata una.
Did you buy any apples? – Yes, I bought many / I bought one.
When the verb is followed by a noun, the participle usually agrees with
the noun or, less commonly, with ne, e.g.:
Hai comprato delle arance? – S`ı, ne ho comprato un chilo.
Did you buy any oranges? – Yes, I bought a kilo.
Hai comprato delle pesche? – S`ı, ne ho comprati (or
comprate) due chili.
Did you buy any peaches? – Yes, I bought two kilos.
Similarly, when the verb is reflexive, the participle agrees with the
following noun or, less commonly, with ne or, even less commonly, the
subject, e.g.:
Elena ha comprato delle pere? S`ı, se ne `e comprati (or
comprate or comprata) due chili.
Did Elena buy any pears? – Yes, she bought herself two chilos (of them).
16.3 Order of object pronouns
The order of unstressed pronouns relative to each other is governed by this
table:
mi gli vi ci si lo si ne
le ti (reflexive) la (impersonal)
(dative) li
le
A second principle is:
indirect object direct object
While many combinations of unstressed pronouns are possible in theory,
only certain types tend to occur in practice. These are:
an indirect object followed by lo, la, li, le or ne. The following changes
occur: mi, ti, si (reflexive only), ci, vi become me, te, se, ce, ve; and
gli and le both become glie- and attach to the following pronoun, e.g.:
te lo chiedo
I’m asking you (for it) / I’m requesting it of you
ce ne parlava
she was speaking about it to us
glielo chiedo
I’ll ask him (for it) / I’ll ask her (for it) / I’ll ask them (for it)
gliene parlava
she was speaking about it to us
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16 Pronouns
ci (or vi R2–3) with a direct object pronoun or ne. Note the varying
position of ci:
mi ci porti?
will you take me there?
non ti ci vedo
I can’t see you there / in that situation
ce lo troverai domani
you will find him there tomorrow
ce ne sono tanti / ve ne sono tanti (R2–3)
there are lots of them
reflexive si with a direct object (following) or indirect object (preceding),
e.g.:
se lo mangia tutto lui
he eats it all himself
gli si avvicina
she goes up to him
impersonal si with a direct or indirect object or ne. Note the position of
impersonal si compared to reflexive si:
La pasta? La si prepara in cinque minuti.
The pasta? It is / can be prepared in five minutes.
La pasta? Se la prepara in cinque minuti.
The pasta? He prepares it for himself in five minutes.
se ne parla
one talks about it or he talks to himself about it
mi si dice che . . .
I am told that . . .
groups of more than two pronouns are possible in theory, but in practice
the only such groups usually include a pair of indirect + object pronouns
plus impersonal si, e.g.:
glielo si dice
it is said to him/her/them
gli se ne parla (less common, gliene si parla)
one talks to him/her/them about it
16.4 Pronouns and verb
Before finite verbs:
Ti parlo per il tuo bene.
I’m speaking to you for your good.
After and attached to non-finite forms – gerund, infinitive, and participle
used alone – and ecco:
vedendoti in quello stato / avendoti visto in quello stato
on seeing you / having seen you in that state
per finirla / per averla finita
to finish it / through having finished it
vistolo / arrivatoci / una lettera riferentesi al caso (R3)
having seen it / having arrived there / a letter referring to the case
266
16.4 Pronouns and verb
eccomi / eccotelo
here I am / here it is for you (here you are).
Note that loro follows all verbs forms and is never attached, e.g.:
vedo loro / parlo loro / per capir(e) loro
note the following crystallized forms which now only appear in notices
and formal communications:
Vendesi, Affittasi, Cercasi; Vendonsi (or Vendesi) appartamenti
For sale, For rent, Wanted; Apartments for sale
With first and second person imperatives, the pronouns are attached to the
verb in the affirmative, e.g.:
Parlami / Ditemi cosa volete / Diciamoglielo!
In the negative, the pronoun usually follows the verb but in R1–2 may
precede it, e.g.:
Non preoccuparti or Non ti preoccupare
Non parlatene or Non ne parlate
Non scoraggiamoci or Non ci scoraggiamo!
With third person imperatives, since these are subjunctives, the pronouns
always precede the verb, e.g.:
Si accomodi / Non si disturbi / Mi dica!
In a verb + gerund construction, the pronouns usually precede the finite
verb, but may follow and attach to the gerund, e.g.:
Lo sto finendo in questo momento or Sto finendolo in questo
momento.
In a modal verb (dovere, potere, sapere, volere) + infinitive
construction, the pronouns may either precede the finite verb or follow
and attach to the infinitive (they may not come between finite verb and
infinitive). In formal registers the pronouns tend to attach to the
infinitive, but in informal conversation the choice is free. Note that if the
modal is emphasized, the pronouns attach to the infinitive. If there
are two pronouns, they must not be split, except with impersonal s`ı, e.g.:
Ci dobbiamo alzare presto or Dobbiamo alzarci presto
Te ne voglio parlare or Voglio parlartene
Lo devo poter fare or Devo poterlo fare or Devo poter farlo
Si pu`o farlo or Lo si pu`o fare.
With other verbs that take a following infinitive, the pronoun follows the
infinitive, but with some verbs it may precede the finite verb in informal
registers, e.g.:
Non riesco a leggerlo
Vado a prendertelo or Te lo vado a prendere
Stiamo cercando di orientarci or Ci stiamo cercando di
orientare.
When the infinitive is a reflexive verb, the position of the pronoun affects
the choice of auxiliary: essere if it precedes the verb, avere if it follows
the infinitive (cf section 22.6), e.g.:
Ci siamo dovuti alzare presto or Abbiamo dovuto alzarci
presto
Si `e cominciata a preoccupare or Ha cominciato a
preoccuparsi.
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16 Pronouns
With verbs of perception, the pronoun always goes with the main verb if it
is the subject of the infinitive, but can be in either position if it is the
object, e.g.:
L’ho sentito cantare.
I heard him singing or I heard it being sung.
Ho sentito cantarlo.
I heard it being sung.
Non voglio sentirlo cantare or Non lo voglio sentir cantare.
I can’t hear him singing or I can’t hear it being sung.
Therefore with verbs of perception two pronouns may be split, e.g.:
Ti ho sentito cantarlo.
I heard you singing it.
Ho sentito cantartelo.
I heard it being sung to you.
Te l’ho sentito cantare.
I heard you singing it or I heard it being sung to you.
With certain verbs only one position is possible. With causative fare and
lasciare, the pronoun precedes the main verb, e.g.:
Li hai fatti cadere?
Did you let them fall / drop them?
Gli hai fatto perdere l’entusiasmo.
You made them lose enthusiasm.
and with sembrare and parere, the pronoun is attached to the infinitive,
e.g.:
Sembra capirlo.
Pareva svegliarsi.
16.5 Pronouns of address
In modern Italian, the following pronouns are used for addressing another
person or persons:
Singular: tu, Lei, voi, Ella (R3)
(Lei and its derived forms La, Le are often written today
without the capital letter; Ella always has the capital; voi is
sometimes written with a capital, especially in commercial
Italian where it refers to the organization being addressed
rather than a specific individual.)
Plural: voi, Loro
(Loro is always written with the capital letter, voi never.)
The Italian expression for to use tu/voi/Lei is dare del tu/voi/Lei. The
most important distinction is between tu and Lei when speaking to one
person. Usage is changing rapidly and varies according to personal
background and taste, but some general rules can be given. The use of tu
in place of Lei is spreading.
268
16.5 Pronouns of address
Tu is used universally in the following situations:
speaking to children, animals, God, and saints (though some traditional
prayers to Mary use voi);
to express intimate or familiar relationships, e.g. between relatives of the
same generation, to younger relatives, between friends;
to express solidarity or some common bond between individuals, either
age, social class, occupation, activity, etc. Thus tu is very widely used
among young people, in all situations; between workmates and colleagues;
to priests;
talkback radio, magazine columns which answer letters from readers;
instructions and questions from computers and other machines to humans
(the infinitive is also used).
Lei is used:
to express courtesy to strangers in formal situations, e.g. those serving the
public in shops and offices;
to students at university (while tu is used throughout school);
to express respect to older persons and those in positions of authority or
respect, e.g. university professors (nowadays this often depends on the
personality of the professor), priests;
people with whom one has a relationship which, however cordial and
long-standing, is not intimately personal or familiar.
Voi, used to one person, is disappearing but still survives especially in
the Center and the mainland South. It is used as a mark of respect to
persons with whom one is, nevertheless, on familiar or intimate terms,
e.g. older relatives, priests, shopkeepers in one’s village or suburb.
Ella is used only on extremely formal, public occasions. Adjectives and
participles tend to be in the feminine.
Pronoun usage in most cases is reciprocal, i.e. both interlocutors use the
same pronoun. The only usual exceptions to this involve a clear difference
in social status and age.
Tu is usually associated with the use of a person’s given name, and Lei
with use of a person’s title and/or last name. However there are many
possible combinations of tu/Lei with first name/last name/title,
expressing multiple dimensions of social relationships, e.g.:
colleagues who do not know each other particularly well may use tu but
call each other by their surname;
a woman who employs a cleaning lady may call the cleaning lady by her
first name while the cleaning lady calls her Signora + first name, and
they may both use Lei;
journalists and politicians may be on first-name terms and use tu privately,
but when in the media they may use Lei to each other while the politician
may use the journalist’s last name and the journalist may use the
politician’s title or last name or both.
In the plural, voi is used in almost all situations today, even when the
persons being addressed would receive Lei individually. Loro has a
somewhat antiquated feel.
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17 Comparison
17.1 Comparison of inequality (more/less/fewer than)
Usage varies somewhat in the use of di and che.
17.1.1 Nouns and pronouns
If two nouns or pronouns are compared and one of them comes before
the verb, di is used. This usually means that both items are subjects of a
verb, expressed or implied, e.g.:
Le riviste sono pi `u/meno care dei giornali.
Magazines are more/less expensive than newspapers.
Mio fratello ha due anni pi `u/meno di me.
My brother is two years older/younger than I/me.
Le nuove banconote sono pi `u/meno belle di quelle vecchie.
The new banknotes are more/less beautiful than the old ones.
If the two nouns or pronouns being compared both come after the verb,
che is used (though di may also be found in this position). This usually
means that both items are objects of a verb. Compare the following pairs
of sentences:
Mangio pi `u pasta che riso.
La pasta la mangio pi `u del riso.
I eat more pasta than rice.
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
270
17.1 Comparison of inequality
Il vino mi piace pi `u della birra.
Mi piace pi `u il vino che la birra.
I like wine more than beer.
Il tiramis `u `e stato pi `u apprezzato della torta.
E’ stato pi `u apprezzato il tiramis `u che la torta.
The tiramis`u was appreciated more than the cake.
When pi `u goes with the second item being compared, di is more usual
than che, e.g.:
Mangio la pasta pi `u del riso.
Mi piace il vino pi `u della birra.
Pi `u della torta `e stato apprezzato il tiramis `u.
Note the following two sentences. The first compares one item with
another in terms of some characteristic they have in common (both items
are “subjects”). The second compares two characteristics of one item
(both characteristics are “objects”):
La biblioteca ha pi `u libri della libreria.
The library has more books than the bookshop.
La biblioteca ha pi `u libri che riviste.
The library has more books than magazines.
Note also the use of di and che in the following pair of sentences (in the
first sentence, the two items being compared are subjects and in the
second they are objects):
Matteo li conosce meglio di Chiara.
(= Matteo li conosce meglio di quanto non li conosca Chiara.)
Matteo knows them better than Chiara (does).
Matteo li conosce meglio che Chiara.
(= Matteo li conosce meglio di quanto lui non conosca Chiara.)
Matteo knows them better than (he knows) Chiara.
When the nouns are preceded by a preposition, che is always used, e.g.:
In Italia ho visto pi `u chiese che in Spagna.
Ho passato pi `u tempo in Italia che in Francia.
17.1.2 Other parts of speech
When the comparison involves any other part of speech but nouns and
pronouns, che is used, e.g.:
Lui `e meno arrabbiato che dispiaciuto.
He is less angry than hurt.
Meglio nudi che in pelliccia.
Better naked than wearing fur.
Meglio tardi che mai.
Better late than never.
C’`e pi`u gioia nel dare che nel ricevere.
It is more blessed to give than to receive.
Fumare `e pi`u dannoso che bere.
Smoking is more harmful than drinking.
271
17 Comparison
note if infinitives are preceded by articles and are thus treated as
nouns, they behave as nouns, e.g.:
Il fumare `e pi`u dannoso del bere.
Note the use of pi `u che at the beginning of a clause in the following:
Pi `u che un semplice documentario, il film si presenta come un
racconto fantastico.
Rather than just a documentary, the film comes across as a tale of
fantasy.
In R3 non may be used after che, e.g.:
Parl `o pi`u per necessit`a che non per disposizione naturale.
He spoke more out of necessity than because of natural disposition.
Note these expressions:
L’ho visto pi `u di tre volte.
I’ve seen it more than three times.
Pi `u chiaro di cos`ı non si pu`o.
It couldn’t be clearer that that.
Pi `u che altro non voglio fare brutta figura.
More than anything I don’t want to look silly.
Oggi ho lavorato meno di ieri.
Today I have worked less than yesterday.
Ti amo pi `u che mai.
I love you more than ever.
17.1.3 Alternatives to di/che
Both di and che can sometimes be replaced by rispetto a, nei confronti
di, etc.:
Rispetto al fratello, `e molto pi `u indipendente.
Compared to her brother, she is much more independent.
17.2 Comparison of equality
Comparing nouns: tanto/altrettanto (R2–3) . . . quanto . . .
Questo paese non ha tante case quante l’altro.
This village doesn’t have as many houses as the other.
Questo paese ha tanti palazzi quante chiese.
This village has as many palaces as churches.
I palazzi sono tanti quante sono le chiese.
There are as many palaces as there are churches.
Note the use of partitive ne in the following:
Ci sono tanti tipi di pizza quanti ce ne sono di formaggio.
There are as many types of pizza as there are of cheese.
Comparing adjectives: tanto . . . quanto (che, R1–2) . . .; cos`ı . . .
come . . .; altrettanto . . . quanto (che, R1–2) . . .; the first element is
often not used.
272
17.4 Superlatives
Questo ragazzo mi sembra (tanto) intelligente quanto suo
fratello.
Questo ragazzo mi sembra (cos`ı) intelligente come suo fratello.
This boy seems to me as intelligent as his brother.
Questo stile `e altrettanto conosciuto in Italia quanto (che,
R1–2) all’estero.
This style is as well-known in Italy as abroad.
(E’) bianco come la neve.
(It’s) as white as snow.
17.3 Comparison involving a clause
When the second element of a comparison is a clause, the following
constructions are used:
di quello che / di come + indicative (subjunctive less common)
di quanto non + subjunctive (R2–3)
di quanto + indicative (less common)
che non + subjunctive (R3)
E’ pi `u alto di quello che pensavo.
E’ pi `u alto di quanto non pensassi (R2–3)/di quanto pensavo.
E’ pi `u alto che non pensassi (R3).
He’s taller than I thought.
Note the use of partitive ne in the following:
Ha perso pi `u azioni di quante ne ha acquisite.
He lost more shares than he acquired.
When two clauses are directly correlated: pi `u . . . (e) pi `u . . .; meno . . .
(e) meno . . .
Pi `u la sento parlare (e) pi `u sono convinto che ha ragione.
The more I hear her talk, the more I am convinced she is right.
Pi `u siamo, meglio `e.
The more the merrier.
Quanto pi `u le vicende sono gravi, tanto pi `u c’`e bisogno di
soluzioni originali (R2–3).
The more serious the events, the greater the need for original solutions.
17.4 Superlatives
“Relative” superlatives are identical in form to comparatives. When they
are used with a noun, the definite article is not used with the adjective in
modern Italian. However, when the noun is understood, or when the
superlative is an adverb (and thus no noun is involved), the article is used,
e.g.:
Ha comprato il gelato pi `u grande possibile.
She bought the biggest possible ice-cream.
273
17 Comparison
Un uomo, il pi `u anziano di tutti, ci venne incontro.
A man, the oldest of them all, came towards us.
Risponder`o il pi`u presto possibile.
I will answer as soon as possible.
After a superlative, the preposition di is used, but if the noun is plural
tra/fra may also be used, e.g.:
E’ il pi `u grande del mondo.
It’s the biggest in the world.
Lei era la pi `u preparata di/fra tutti.
She was the best prepared of them all / among them all.
The following construction is R2–3 and does not strictly express the idea
of superlative but simply emphasizes the quality of the item in question. In
the negative it is decidedly ironic:
Abbiamo assistito a uno spettacolo dei pi `u strani.
We witnessed a most strange show.
Non `e stata un’idea delle pi `u brillanti.
It wasn’t one of the most brilliant ideas (= It was not a good idea at all).
“Absolute” superlatives are formed by adding -issimo to adjectives,
adverbs or, in a few cases, nouns, e.g.: caldissimo, amatissimo;
prestissimo, sicurissimamente; ingambissimo (R1–2, = molto in
gamba); il campionissimo, augurissimi. Such adjectives are used as
normal adjectives, usually after the noun, e.g.:
Ha comprato un gelato grandissimo.
She bought a very big ice-cream.
17.5 Irregular comparatives and superlatives
A number of adjectives form their absolute superlative in irregular ways
which derive from Latin, e.g. celebre – celeberrimo. Such forms are
characteristic of R3.
A number of common adjectives have both regular and irregular forms
of the comparative and superlative:
pi `u buono or migliore; buonissimo or ottimo
pi `u cattivo or peggiore; cattivissimo or pessimo
pi `u grande or maggiore; il pi `u grande or il maggiore or il
massimo
pi `u piccolo or minore; il pi `u piccolo or il minore or il minimo
The pairs of forms are generally interchangeable, except for the following:
figurative meanings occur more often with the irregular forms
un fratello maggiore, un fratello pi `u grande
an older brother, an older/taller brother
pi `u buono: of persons means “good-natured,” of things it means good to
eat or drink, e.g.:
Questo ragazzo `e il pi`u buono della classe.
This boy is the best-natured in the class.
E’ il pi `u buon prosciutto crudo che abbia mai mangiato in vita
mia.
274
17.5 Irregular comparatives and superlatives
It’s the best Parma ham I have ever eaten in my life.
In R1–2 meglio is often used instead of migliore. This usage should not
be imitated, e.g.:
Per le notizie economiche, questo giornale `e meglio di quello.
For economic news, this newspaper is better than that one.
Other irregular comparatives, of Latin origin, are often used with a
generic, “independent” meaning and retain their comparative meaning
only in R3. They are anteriore, esteriore, inferiore, interiore,
posteriore, superiore, ulteriore, e.g.:
Dormiva sul sedile posteriore della macchina.
He was asleep in the back seat of the car.
La data sull’assegno `e posteriore a quella effettiva (R3).
The date on the cheque is after/later than the actual one.
Some of these irregular comparatives also have irregular superlative forms,
some of which retain a superlative meaning, e.g. estremo, infimo,
sommo/supremo, ultimo, while others have lost it, e.g. intimo. But
these and many other words which, strictly speaking, cannot be modified
can acquire the superlative ending, especially in informal registers (cf.
colloquial English expressions like “very unique”), e.g.: ultimissimo
“absolutely last”; finalissima “grand final.”
275
18 Word order
Word order is flexible in Italian, more flexible in many ways than in
English. Changes in word order are not random but reflect differences in
meaning or emphasis. These may at times be subtle, but are important to
the message being communicated.
In general, Italian uses word order for stylistic effects, where English
often relies on effects of the voice (in writing, these are shown by italics
and other conventions). One important principle is that new or important
information is normally placed at the end of the sentence in Italian, and
other elements will be arranged accordingly.
18.1 Subject and verb
The subject usually comes before the verb:
Il mio computer ha un guasto.
My computer has a fault.
There is often nothing in front of the verb in Italian. With transitive verbs
and other verbs that take avere, this is because the subject can be omitted
if it is clear from the verb ending or the context:
Ho visto Luigi ieri. Sta meglio dell’ultima volta che l’ho visto.
I saw Luigi yesterday. He is better than the last time I saw him.
Subjects often come after the verb. This is common in the following cases:
(i) if the subject is emphasized:
Rispondo io!
I’ll get it (i.e. the telephone)!
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
276
18.2 Subject, verb, and object
Qui comando io.
I’m the boss around here.
Hanno vinto i candidati alternativi.
The alternative candidates have won.
(ii) if the subject is long, especially if the verb is short and/or generic in
meaning:
E’ stata una nottata movimentata, come sa chi ci ha seguito
(from a TV news broadcast).
It has been a busy night, as those who have been watching us know.
(iii) with verbs that take essere, if the verb presents a new fact or state of affairs:
E’ successo qualcosa.
Something has happened.
Sono aumentate le tasse su tutti i beni di consumo.
Taxes on all consumer goods have gone up.
Sono state identificate le persone responsabili.
The people responsible have been identified.
Si sono verificati incidenti preoccupanti.
Worrying incidents have occurred.
(iv) with verbs such as piacere, mancare, bastare, etc., without a direct
object (cf. section 4.4):
Mi piacciono tutte le opere di Verdi.
I like all Verdi’s operas.
Ci manca la tua voce.
We miss the sound of your voice.
Mi fanno male i piedi.
My feet hurt.
(v) with non-finite verbal constructions:
stando cos`ı le cose
things being as they are/were
arrivati gli ultimi ospiti
once the last guests had arrived
visti i documenti
after the documents have/had been viewed
Note that several set expressions with non-finite verbs place the subject
first, e.g.:
tempo permettendo
weather permitting
tutto sommato
all things considered.
18.2 Subject, verb, and object
With verbs that take an object, various word orders are possible.
(i) Moving the object to the left (i.e. the beginning of sentence or clause)
Object and subject can be inverted. This has the double effect of
introducing the object as the “topic” of the sentence, and giving special
277
18 Word order
prominence to whatever is put at the end of the sentence (usually the
subject). This inversion is very common in speech, since it allows speakers
to emphasize whichever elements of the sentence they wish.
In R3, the inversion can be done without any other changes to the
sentence.
Preoccupazioni puristiche – nel senso ottocentesco del
termine – la Crusca non ebbe (M. Cortelazzo).
The Crusca Academy did not have puristic concerns in the
nineteenth-century sense of the term.
In R1 and R2, objects that are moved “to the left” are usually
recapitulated by a pronoun, e.g.:
Gli spaghetti li ha fatti mia nonna.
My grandmother made the spaghetti.
This is very much like saying
Gli spaghetti sono stati fatti da mia nonna.
or
E’ mia nonna che ha fatto gli spaghetti.
Consider also these examples:
La legge non l’ho fatta io (Manzoni).
It wasn’t me that made the law.
Don Fabrizio quella sensazione la conosceva da sempre (Tomasi
di Lampedusa).
Don Fabrizio had always known that sensation.
A me non mi piace (R1–2).
I don’t like it.
In R1 an indirect object is sometimes moved to the left without its
preposition. The repeating pronoun makes the meaning clear. This is
usually considered ungrammatical, e.g.:
Quel signore, Dio gli ha toccato il cuore (Manzoni, direct speech
in I Promessi Sposi) = A quel signore, Dio (gli) ha toccato il
cuore.
That man, God has touched his heart/God has touched that man’s
heart.
Chi ha, gli sar`a dato (C. Pavese) = A chi ha, (gli) sar`a dato.
To him that has, shall be given.
Chiara, non le ho mica detto niente (R1).
I didn’t say anything to Chiara.
The following construction is R1 and usually considered ungrammatical:
Mangiare, mangio poco.
As for eating, I don’t eat much.
(ii) Moving the object to the right (i.e. to the end of the sentence or clause)
An object can also be “moved to the right.” The “repeating” pronoun
actually comes first, which has the effect of isolating the object at the end
of the sentence. Often a pause before the object makes it seem almost an
afterthought to remind the listener of the topic at hand (which the speaker
assumes was common knowledge to start with). The emphasis is on what
precedes this moved object, often the verb. This construction has a feeling
278
18.3 Verbs, objects, and adverbs
of informality about it and conveys some familiarity between speaker and
listener. It is confined to speech and should be used with care.
Lo vuole un caff´e?
Do you want a coffee?
Lo porto domani, il dolce.
As for the sweet, I’ll bring it tomorrow.
Non bisogna farla chiacchierare la gente (G. Verga).
You mustn’t make people gossip.
(iii) Cleft sentences
The English equivalent is It is x who is doing y. The Italian construction is
very widely used in speech and there are important differences between
the English and Italian constructions.
E’ Matteo che ha tirato la coda al gatto.
E’ stato Matteo a tirare la coda al gatto.
It was Matteo who pulled the cat’s tail.
Sono io che te lo dico = Sono io a dirtelo.
It’s me telling you/I’m the one who’s telling you.
Sei tu che devi chiedere scusa.
You’re the one/It’s you who has to apologise.
E’ l`ı che voglio arrivare.
That’s where I want to get to.
E’ per questo che non mi piace.
That’s why I don’t like it.
Quand’`e che parti per il Canada?
When is it that you are leaving for Canada?
18.3 Verbs, objects, and adverbs
As a rule the adverb immediately follows the verb in Italian. To give it
particular prominence it may be moved to other positions in the sentence,
especially before the verb. Note the shift in emphasis between the two
clauses in the following sentence:
Lei gli prese innocentemente la mano, Candide
innocentemente baci `o la mano di lei (Sciascia).
Long, modified or ‘heavy’ adverbs may, as in English, follow the object,
e.g.:
Lei parla bene l’italiano.
She speaks Italian well.
Lei parla molto bene l’italiano (normal order) or
Lei parla l’italiano molto bene (greater emphasis).
She speaks Italian very well.
Lei parla l’italiano con grande sicurezza.
She speaks Italian with great confidence.
The adverb anche comes immediately before the item it refers to. Note
the effect of the change of position in the following:
279
18 Word order
Anche Eugenio scrive poesie in italiano (as well as some other
person).
Eugenio anche scrive poesie in italiano (as well as reading them).
Eugenio scrive anche poesie in italiano (as well as novels).
Eugenio scrive poesie anche in italiano (as well as English poems).
18.4 Noun and adjective
All adjectives in Italian can, in theory, come before or after a noun.
However, the difference in position always carries a difference in meaning.
In many cases this is a subtle nuance of emphasis or style associated with a
particular register, but in others the difference is between distinct concepts
and would require different words in English.
The basic position for adjectives is after the noun. Here they perform
their essential function – to describe something and restrict the meaning
of the noun. When adjectives come before nouns, they acquire a more
rhetorical flavour and may express metaphorical meanings.
One adjective
An adjective after a noun adds information that helps to identify the noun
in question, often by contrasting it with other possible or potential nouns.
An adjective before a noun gives additional information of a subjective
nature about the noun: it tells us something about the noun that the
speaker wants us to know but which is not crucial for identifying the noun
in question, e.g.:
un racconto triste
a story whose most salient characteristic (for the speaker) is that it is sad
un triste racconto
a story that happens to be sad (among other possible attributes).
All adjectives follow the noun if they have some other element depending
on them, e.g.:
un racconto triste da ricordare
a story [that is] sad to recall
Connotations of a following position
Some adjectives are almost always distinctive. They express nationality,
color, religious or political affiliation etc., e.g.:
un cittadino canadese, il vino rosso, un paese musulmano, il
deputato radicale
These adjectives sometimes lose any “distinctive” force and precede the
noun. Il Manzoni cattolico refers to Alessandro Manzoni after his
conversion to Catholicism, as opposed to his earlier, anticlerical period. To
say il cattolico Manzoni is to assume the reader knows that Manzoni
was a Catholic and alludes to this fact as part of a particular interpretation.
280
18.4 Noun and adjective
Connotations of a preceding position
(i) When the adjective is an “expected” attribute, e.g.:
con enormi difficolt`a
with enormous difficulty
This is often used for stylistic effect, e.g.:
Capo Vaticano: suggestivo promontorio da dove si gode la
magnifica vista dell’intero panorama della costa tirrenica
calabrese (travel brochure)
(ii) When adjective and noun make a familiar or set phrase, e.g.:
cari saluti
kind regards (at the end of a letter)
un leggero aumento nel costo della vita
a slight increase in the cost of living
(iii) Certain adjectives usually come before the noun. These adjectives are very
common and express generic value judgments:
bello, brutto, buono, cattivo
They may come before the noun even when superlative, but must follow
the noun when modified by an adverb, e.g.:
una bella festa
una bellissima festa or una festa bellissima
una festa molto bella
una festa piuttosto bella
(iv) Adjectives usually precede infinitives used as nouns, e.g.:
il suo lento spostarsi
its slow movement
un continuo sentirsi debole
a continual feeling of weakness
Change of meaning with change of position
A certain number of adjectives have different meanings before and after
nouns. In line with what has been said above, when these adjectives come
after a noun they express their more usual, literal and simpler meaning.
When they come before a noun, they express metaphorical and more
nuanced meanings.
alto pressione alta high pressure (of blood)
alta pressione high pressure (of atmosphere
or gas)
barbaro i soldati barbari the Barbarian soldiers
i barbari soldati (R3) the barbaric soldiers
buono un uomo buono a good-natured man
un buon uomo a decent chap, a good guy
caro un ristorante caro an expensive restaurant
una cara trattoria a lovely trattoria
certo una notizia certa a reliable piece of news
una certa notizia a certain piece of news
281
18 Word order
distinto persone distinte distinguished persons
distinte persone various persons
idee distinte distinct ideas
distinte idee various ideas
diverso colori diversi different colors
diversi colori several colors
dolce l’acqua dolce del lago fresh water (not salty)
la dolce acqua del lago
(R3)
the sweet water of the lake
grande un uomo grande a large man
un grande uomo a great man
numeroso famiglie numerose large families
numerose famiglie many families
nuovo Mi sono comprato una
macchina nuova
(the car is brand new)
Mi sono comprato una
nuova macchina
(the car may be old but it
replaces my previous one)
povero un ragazzo povero a poor child
povero ragazzo! poor (= unfortunate) child!
il mio povero nonno my late grandfather
proprio un nome proprio a proper noun
il proprio nome one’s own name
puro il vino puro unadulterated wine
la pura verit`a only the truth
santo quella donna santa that holy woman
quella santa donna! that blessed woman!
semplice Non preoccuparti: `e una
domanda semplice
(a simple question)
Non preoccuparti: `e una
semplice domanda
( just a question)
solo per donne sole for single or unaccompanied
women
per sole donne for women only
stesso il ragazzo stesso the boy himself
lo stesso ragazzo the same boy
unico un unico volume one single volume
`e un libro unico it’s a unique book
vario ragioni molto varie very varied reasons
varie persone various/several persons
vecchio un amico vecchio a friend who is old
un vecchio amico a friend of long standing
vero Questa `e una commedia
vera.
This is a factual play.
Questa `e una vera
commedia!
This is a real comedy!
282
18.5 Numerals and altro
More than one adjective
A noun can be modified by a number of adjectives in two ways. If each
adjective adds separate information, they are separated by commas and the
word e. If the adjectives are descriptive or subjective as mentioned above,
they may come before the noun, e.g.:
un programma lungo, noioso e scemo
a stupid, boring, long program
una rapida e positiva soluzione
a quick, positive solution
If each new adjective adds further restriction by modifying what comes
before it, they are added without punctuation, e.g.:
la sfera mobile celeste
the celestial mobile sphere
la Comunit`a economica europea (= CEE )
the European Economic Community (= EEC)
un impatto emotivo terribile
a terrible emotional impact
Adjectives are added to the right. (In English they are added to the left.)
However, if the series gets long, a new adjective, that would have gone at
the end of the list, can be added before the noun, e.g.:
un’universit`a pubblica italiana
an Italian public university
un’universit`a pubblica italiana famosa OR
una famosa universit`a pubblica italiana
a famous Italian public university
18.5 Numerals and altro
i primi due anni, gli ultimi due anni
the first two years, the last two years
i due primi anni, i due ultimi anni
the two initial years, the two final years
molti altri ragazzi, pochi altri ragazzi
many other young people, a few other young people
altri due ragazzi
two more young people
Dammi un altro dieci-venti minuti! (R1)
Give me another ten or twenty minutes!
283
19 Negation
19.1 No
No is used to answer questions, both alone and in certain phrases:
Avrai il tempo per uscire stasera?
-No, non credo.
-Credo di no / Temo di no / Spero di no / Mi sembra di no /
Direi di no
I don’t think so / I am afraid not / I hope not / I don’t think so / I
would say not
Perch´e no?
Why not?
No is also used in sentences to sum up a negative alternative:
Ma vuoi venire o no?
But do you want to come or not?
Dimmi se ti piace o no (Note the R1–2 alternative: Dimmi se ti
piace o meno).
Tell me if you like it or not.
If no applies to one particular word, it usually follows that word, e.g.:
Tommaso `e d’accordo, ma Elena no.
Tommaso agrees, but Elena doesn’t.
Andrei volentieri al Luna Park, ma con te no (cf. ma non
con te)
I would gladly go to the Amusement Park, but not with you.
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
284
19.2 Non
Avete tutti ricevuto l’invito? Io no.
Have you all received the invitation? – I haven’t.
Sono tutti eligibili, studenti e no.
All are eligible, students and non-students.
A common, but less correct, alternative is to use non:
Sono tutti d’accordo, politici e non.
All are in agreement, politicians and non-politicians (or politicians and
others).
19.2 Non
An Italian sentence is negated by placing non before a verb or auxiliary
(and any associated pronouns), e.g.:
Non l’ho fatto io.
I didn’t do it.
Non te lo voglio dire / Non voglio dirtelo.
I don’t want to tell you.
The “scope” of negation can be limited by placing non in front of
individual elements, e.g.:
Non tutti sono d’accordo.
Not everyone is in agreement.
Consider these pairs:
Non sono disposto a farlo (= I won’t do it)
Sono disposto a non farlo (= I may do it, but may not)
Non posso farlo (= I am not able to do it)
Posso non farlo (= I can avoid doing it)
Non posso crederti.
I cannot believe you
Non posso non crederti.
I cannot but believe you.
With verbs of opinion and intention, moving the non does not
significantly change the basic meaning, e.g.:
Non vorrei che tu ti preoccupassi.
Vorrei che tu non ti preoccupassi.
I wouldn’t want you to worry.
A whole sentence may be negated by non `e che or non che (R2–3).
These expressions usually negate an idea which has been referred to,
explicitly or implicitly, in the context, and usually lead to a different or
opposing idea being put forward, e.g.:
Non che lui sia cattivo, ma `e molto nervoso.
It’s not that he’s nasty, but he is very touchy.
-Mi hanno detto che Matteo lavora in un ristorante.
-No, non `e che lavora in un ristorante, fa il barista nel centro.
-They told me Matteo works in a restaurant.
-No, it’s not that he works in a restaurant, he is a barman in the city.
285
19 Negation
In informal usage, non `e che is sometimes used simply to negate a whole
sentence in a somewhat softer way than non, with the subjunctive (R2–3)
or the indicative (R1–2). Compare:
Non `e molto bello.
He’s not very handsome.
Non `e che lui sia/`e molto bello.
He’s not really very handsome.
19.3 Negative pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs
These are nessuno, niente/nulla, alcuno (R3), mai, pi ` u, affatto,
mica, manco, punto, neanche/neppure/nemmeno, n´e, n´e . . .
n´e . . . , non . . . che.
A negative sentence in Italian must always have one negative item
before the verb, even if there are one or more negative words after it.
Usually the negative words listed above follow the verb, e.g.:
Non vedo nessuno.
I can’t see anyone/I see no one.
Non capisco niente/nulla.
I don’t understand anything/I understand nothing.
Non vi `e alcuna ragione per crederlo (R3).
There is no reason to believe it.
Non sono mai stato n´e a Forl`ı n´e a Cefal `u.
In R1 this would be Non sono mai stato a Forl`ı e neanche a
Cefal `u.
I have never been either to Forl`ı or to Cefal`u.
Non abito pi `u in quella casa.
I no longer live in that house/I don’t live in that house any more.
Non c’era pi `u vino.
There was no more wine.
Non ci torner`o mai pi `u.
I’ll never go back there again.
Non `e affatto vero.
Non `e mica vero (R1).
It’s not true at all.
Non ho manco capito (R1).
Non ho punto capito.
I haven’t understood at all.
Non ho parlato con lei: non l’ho neanche vista/neppure
vista/nemmeno vista.
I haven’t spoken to her: I haven’t even seen her.
Non l’ho visto n´e desidero vederlo (R3) (= e non desidero
vederlo).
I have not seen him nor do I wish to see him.
Non desidero che partire (R3).
(In R1–2 this would be Voglio solo partire).
I desire nothing but to depart/I only want to depart.
286
19.3 Negative pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs
These negative words may also precede the verb. With nessuno, niente
and n´e . . . n´e. . . . , they may come first if they are subject of the verb
but come after the verb for emphasis, e.g.:
Nessuno ha parlato (= Non ha parlato nessuno).
No one spoke.
Niente `e successo (= Non `e successo niente).
Nothing happened.
N´e io n´e mia moglie ci siamo andati (= Non ci siamo andati
n´e io n´e mia moglie).
Neither my wife nor I went there.
Mai may precede the verb for emphasis in R2–3, e.g.:
Mai avrei creduto che fosse possibile una tale crudelt`a
Never would I have believed that such cruelty was possible.
Mai che abbia un pensiero gentile (cf. section 30.2.8).
He never has a kind thought.
It normally comes first in R1 in Sicily:
Lui disse che mai aveva pensato che . . . (Sciascia)
= Lui disse che non aveva mai pensato che . . .
Non . . . punto is Tuscan:
Non ho punto (or punta) voglia di uscire.
I have no desire to go out.
Manco is most common is the South, mica in the North. In R1 they
may be used without a preceding non:
E’ manco vero (or Manco vero).
E’ mica vero (or Mica vero).
It’s not true or Not true.
There are many other reinforcing negatives, usually confined to speech,
e.g.:
non ci capisco un’acca, un fico secco (R2), un cavolo (R1), un
cazzo (R1∗)
I can’t understand a thing, fuck all
Certain negative words can be used elliptically in conversation, e.g.:
Che cosa hai fatto ieri sera? – Niente di particolare.
What did you do last night? – Nothing special.
Mille grazie! – (Di) niente.
Many thanks – It was nothing.
Dammi le chiavi! – Mai (stronger is Mai e poi mai).
Give me the keys! – Never.
Ora o mai pi `u.
It’s now or never.
La conosci la sorella di Mario? – Mai vista.
Do you know Mario’s sister? – Never seen her.
Certain negative words can be used without non to have a positive
meaning (this is in fact their historically older meaning), e.g.:
Ha chiamato nessuno?
Has anyone called?
Vado a fare la spesa, hai bisogno di niente?
I’m going shopping, do you need anything?
287
19 Negation
Hai mai sentito parlare delle Arpie?
Have you ever heard of the Harpies?
Se ti ricorderai mai di me, scrivimi.
If you ever remember me, write to me.
Hai pi `u incontrato mia cugina?
Did you meet my cousin again?
Note these R1 uses of niente:
Non `e vero niente (= non `e affatto vero).
It’s not true at all.
Non ho niente voglia di uscire.
I have no desire to go out.
Oggi niente ravioli.
No ravioli today.
Senza counts as a negative word in that it can be followed by one or more
negative items, e.g.:
Se ne `e andato senza dire niente a nessuno.
He left without saying anything to anyone.
19.4 Apparent negatives
Some exclamations and certain types of subordinate clause require non
although their meaning is positive. The “pleonastic” non may be omitted
in more informal speech.
Che cosa non hanno fatto gli amici per aiutarlo!
What didn’t his friends do to help him!
Chiss`a che non sia finalmente guarito!
Let’s hope he is cured at last!
Io rimango qui finch´e non mi dirai la verit`a.
I am staying here until you tell me the truth.
Far `o come ho detto, a meno che non ci siano buone ragioni
per cambiare progetto.
I will do as I said, unless there are good reasons for changing plans.
E’ pi `u alta di quanto non pensassi.
She’s taller than I thought.
Il Presidente intervenne per timore che la situazione non
peggiorasse (R3).
The President intervened for fear that the situation might deteriorate.
19.5 Negation of single words
Many words can be negated by adding a prefix. Here is a list illustrating
the most common prefixes. It is difficult to predict which prefix will be
used with a particular word – use a dictionary!
288
19.6 Other negative expressions
comodo/scomodo, abile/disabile, felice/infelice,
logico/illogico, morale/immorale, reale/irreale,
normale/anormale, alcolico/analcolico, nobile/ignobile
Non is used with nouns in R3, especially in bureaucratic language:
non appartenenza; patto di non aggressione
non-belonging; non-aggression pact
Adjectives can be negated with varying degrees of intensity by using non,
poco, niente (R1):
un cuore non corrotto
an uncorrupted heart
un’idea poco originale
an unoriginal idea (a not very original idea)
un lavoro niente redditizio (R1, esp North)
a not at all well-paid job.
19.6 Other negative expressions
Italian has a number of set expressions which include non:
Non ha detto parola.
She did not say a word.
Non ha aperto bocca.
He did not open his mouth (did not say a word).
Non ha chiuso occhio.
She did not sleep a wink.
289
20 Periphrases
Italian has a number of verbal constructions with infinitive or gerund,
where the main verb has lost its original meaning and has become a
marker of the aspect of the verb in the infinitive or gerund.
20.1 Stare + gerund
Usually only present and imperfect (less common with future and
conditional). It is known as the “progressive” periphrasis because it
emphasizes the ongoing nature of an action in a particular moment of
time. However, it is much more limited in its uses than the English
progressive tenses. In many situations where English uses a progressive
present or imperfect, it is just as common in Italian to use a simple tense.
Thus, although this Italian construction is becoming more widely used in
Italy, it should not be overused by the learner, since it is only used to make
the action more vivid, actual, or relevant to the situation at hand.
Compare:
Che fa Elena? Parla al telefono.
What is Elena doing? She is talking on the telephone.
Non interrompermi: non vedi che sto parlando al telefono?
Don’t interrupt me; can’t you see I am talking on the phone?
These uses of the English progressive can not be translated by stare +
gerund:
(i) verbs expressing a state of affairs (sta essendo is ungrammatical):
Rosaria abita/vive a Napoli.
Rosaria is living in Naples.
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
290
20.3 Andare + gerund
If used with a different meaning, the periphrasis may be possible, e.g.:
Chiara sta vivendo un brutto momento.
Chiara is going through a hard time.
(ii) continuous actions with “for” or “since”:
Studio il pianoforte da dieci anni/da quando avevo otto anni.
I’ve been studying the piano for ten years/ since I was eight.
Aspettava da un’ora quando finalmente sono arrivati.
He had been waiting for an hour when they finally showed up.
(iii) the future:
Parto domani.
I’m leaving tomorrow.
(iv) the passive:
La bandiera viene abbassata in questo momento.
The flag is being lowered at this moment.
Stare + gerund may be used to express gradual processes of change:
Il tuo italiano sta migliorando giorno per giorno.
Your Italian is improving day by day.
Stare + gerund may be used to express actions continuing or repeated
over a period of time. This usage is colloquial and is most common in
parts of the South:
In questi tempi sto lavorando molto.
I’m working a lot these days.
20.2 Stare a + infinitive, essere dietro a + infinitive
All tenses. These constructions are very similar in meaning to stare +
gerund. Stare a is R1–2 and is most common in the South, while essere
dietro a is R1 and is most common in the North. They may be used to
render the English progressive in tenses not allowed by stare + gerund.
They are not normally used with verbs of motion.
Tommaso ha lavorato a casa per due ore.
Tommaso `e stato (dietro) a lavorare a casa per due ore.
but not Tommaso `e stato lavorando a casa per due ore.
Tommaso was working at home for two hours.
note this idiomatic variation:
Non stare l`ı a preoccuparti/disturbarti/alzarti.
Don’t bother worrying/disturbing yourself/getting up.
20.3 Andare + gerund
All tenses. Only higher registers. This expresses a continuing action or
series of actions during a period of time, especially where the action has a
cumulative effect, e.g.:
Il governo va raccogliendo consensi per il progetto di legge.
The government is gathering support for the bill.
291
20 Periphrases
La sala si andava riempiendo di gente.
The room was filling with people.
Negli anni 60 il partito `e andato rafforzando i legami con i
sindacati.
In the 1960s the party (gradually) strengthened its links with the unions.
Sometimes andare expresses actual movement and the gerund should be
thought of as performing its normal function. Compare:
Va chiedendo le stesse cose a tutti.
He keeps asking everyone the same things.
Va chiedendo soldi in tutte le case del paese.
He is going to all the houses in the village asking for money.
20.4 Venire + gerund
All tenses. This is very similar to andare + gerund, but even more
elevated in style. Often venire preserves some notion of movement, either
physically towards the speaker or figuratively towards some end point or
person benefiting from the action, e.g.:
La barca si veniva avvicinando alla riva.
The boat was coming towards the shore (implies the speaker is on the
shore).
Cf. La barca si andava avvicinando alla riva.
The boat was approaching the shore (moving either towards or away
from the speaker).
In quei mesi, si veniva creando una situazione di instabilit`a
generale (R3).
In those months, a situation of general instability was coming into
being.
292
21 Verbs of movement
English and Italian express manner and direction of movement in different
ways. English tends to use a verb to express manner and a preposition to
express direction. In Italian, the verb normally expresses direction, while
manner is expressed by an adverbial phrase or a gerund. For example:
She ran out of the room
manner direction
E’ uscita dalla stanza di corsa/correndo
direction manner
Italian:
Verb: direction
Phrase: manner
English:
Verb: manner
Preposition or phrase: direction
E’ tornata in bicicletta. She cycled/biked back.
E’ tornato, zoppicando, in
cucina.
He hobbled back to the kitchen.
Ha attraversato il fiume
nuotando/a nuoto.
She swam across the river.
Ha attraversato la campagna
a piedi.
He walked through the
countryside.
Ha salito le scale di corsa. She ran up the stairs.
Ha sceso le scale in punta di
piedi.
He tiptoed down the stairs.
E’ entrata di colpo/in fretta. She burst in.
Si `e portato al muro
strisciando (per terra).
He crawled to the wall.
Common direction verbs in Italian (cf. chapter 22) are:
entrare, uscire, salire, scendere, andare, venire, arrivare, partire,
tornare
Italian has a number of manner verbs which can indicate only the
movement itself. Such movement, towards a destination, is expressed by a
293
21 Verbs of movement
generic direction verb plus an adverbial phrase or a gerund. English often
uses one and the same verb in both cases, e.g.:
Ha camminato in centro per un’ora.
He walked in the city center for an hour.
E’ andato in centro a piedi in un’ora.
He walked to the city center in an hour.
Sei venuto/andato/etc. a piedi o in macchina?
Did you walk or drive?
The following table contains common manner verbs, with some adverbial
phrases typically used to express the same movement when a destination is
specified. These manner verbs, though intransitive, imply deliberate action
by the subject and therefore all take the auxiliary avere (cf. section 22.1).
Manner verbs Manner phrases
to crawl strisciare strisciando, carponi
to cycle andare etc. in bicicletta
to drive guidare in macchina etc.
to hop/skip saltellare (cf. saltare,
section 22.4)
saltellando
to go on horseback cavalcare a cavallo
to limp zoppicare zoppicando
to march marciare marciando
to sail navigare,
veleggiare
in barca/nave
to ski sciare con gli sci
to stroll passeggiare passeggiando
to swim nuotare a nuoto
to travel viaggiare (andare)
to walk camminare a piedi
These manner verbs may be used with certain prepositions, such as
attraverso, fino a, lungo, which express the general direction of the
movement rather than a deliberate destination, e.g.:
Hanno passeggiato attraverso i campi.
They strolled through the fields (i.e. not strictly from one side to the
other).
Ho camminato fino al centro.
I went for a walk as far as the city center.
Abbiamo guidato lungo la costa.
We drove along the coast.
294
22 Auxiliary verbs in compound tenses
The choice between avere and essere is not straightforward in Italian. All
transitive verbs take avere. All reflexive verbs (cf section 24), and verbs in
the passive (cf. section 23), take essere. The problem lies with intransitive
verbs. Some take avere, some take essere, and some can take either. In
general, avere is used with verbs whose subject is involved in performing
an act more or less deliberately, whereas essere is used where the subject
of the verb is seen not so much as performing an action as undergoing an
event or being affected by the event.
22.1 Verbs that always take avere
Verbs of “manner of motion” (see chapter 21) take avere, e.g.:
camminare to walk passeggiare to stroll
galleggiare to float sciare to ski
marciare to march vagare to wander
navigare to navigate viaggiare to travel
nuotare to swim
These include verbs formed by adding a suffix (cf. section 5.3) to verbs
which (may) take essere, e.g.:
gironzolare to stroll about
saltellare to hop, skip
vivacchiare to get by
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
295
22 Auxiliary verbs in compound tenses
22.2 Verbs that always take essere
Note that where a verb takes essere, verbs derived from it will usually also
take essere, even where the meaning is quite different, e.g. venire –
avvenire, to happen; intervenire, to intervene or speak in a debate;
svenire, to faint; etc. All verbs in this section take essere if the prefix riis
added to them.
A number of verbs in this list are often used today with avere instead of
essere, especially in informal registers. They are marked with an
asterisk (∗).
Verbs expressing change of location
affiorare to surface migrare to migrate
andare to go partire to depart
approdare (∗) to dock (by boat) rimbalzare (∗) to bounce
arrivare to arrive sbucare to pop out
balzare to jump scappare to escape
cadere to fall sdrucciolare (∗) to slide
also sgorgare to pour forth
decadere, to decay, slittare (∗) to slip
scadere to expire (i.e. fall due) sopraggiungere to arrive, turn up
cascare to fall sorgere to rise
circolare (∗) to circulate tramontare to set (of the sun)
crollare to collapse trapelare to leak (lit and fig)
defluire to flow down tornare to return
deragliare (∗) to derail uscire to go out
entrare to enter also
espatriare (R2–3) to expatriate riuscire to succeed
fuoriuscire (R3) to come out venire to come
giungere to reach also
immigrare to immigrate avvenire to happen
inciampare (∗) to trip over intervenire to intervene
indietreggiare (∗) to move backwards pervenire to arrive
insorgere (R2–3) to rise up provenire to originate
svenire to faint
Verbs expressing change of condition
ammuffire to grow mouldy
appassire to wilt
arrossire to blush
avvampare (R2–3) to flare up
crepare (R1–2) to die
decrescere to diminish
degenerare (∗) to degenerate
deperire (R2–3) to waste away
divampare (R2–3) to flare up
diventare to become
divenire (R2–3) to become
emergere to emerge
esondare (∗) R(2–3) to overflow (river etc.)
evolvere to evolve
fiorire to flower, flourish
franare to crumble
impallidire to grow pale
296
22.2 Verbs that always take essere
impazzire to go mad
imputridire (R2–3) to go rotten
marcire to rot
morire to die
nascere to be born
perire (R3) to perish
sbocciare to blossom
sbottare to burst out
scaturire (R2–3) to gush, (fig) to ensue
schiattare (R1–2) to die
scoppiare to explode
sfiorire to wither
sfociare (∗)(R2–3) to flow out
smottare to slide (e.g. landslide)
straripare (∗) to overflow (river etc.)
subentrare (a qu) to succeed (sb)
Verbs expressing continuation of a condition
permanere (R3) to remain rimanere to remain
persistere to persist sopravvivere to survive
restare to remain
Verbs expressing happening
accadere to happen decorrere (R3) to pass (of time)
avvenire to happen risultare to turn out
capitare to happen by chance succedere to happen
Verbs expressing being, existing, and various states of being
campare (R1–2) to live
consistere to consist
costare to cost
dipendere to depend
eccellere (∗) to excel
equivalere (∗) to be equivalent
esistere to exist
essere to be
giacere to lie
luccicare (∗) to glitter
prevalere (∗) to prevail
rassomigliare (∗) to resemble
sedere to sit
stare to be
sussistere to subsist
Verbs expressing attributes of persons or things, often having “to be” in their
English translation (cf. section 4.4)
abbisognare (R3) to be necessary
bastare to be enough
bisognare to be necessary
dispiacere not to please
dolere (R3) to cause sorrow
giovare (∗) to be of use
importare to be important
piacere to please
premere to be urgent
rincrescere to regret
spiacere not to please
spettare to be up to sb
toccare to befall
valere to be worth
volerci to be required
Verbs expressing seeming, appearing, disappearing
apparire to appear
comparire to appear
parere to appear
sembrare to seem
sparire to disappear
scomparire to disappear
svanire to vanish
297
22 Auxiliary verbs in compound tenses
Verbs expressing the emission of sound
These verbs, all R2–3 except squillare, take both auxiliaries with no
perceptible difference of meaning or register. For suonare,
see section 22.4.
echeggiare (∗) to echo
rimbombare (∗) to boom out
risuonare (∗) to resound
rintronare (∗) to boom out
squillare (∗) to ring (e.g. telephone)
Verbs of weather and atmospheric phenomena
Although official usage indicates essere, avere is very widely used today
with these verbs. Essere is often considered to be high register or typical
of central Italian usage.
abbuiare (R3) to turn dark
annottare (R3) to become night
balenare (R3) to lighten (of sky)
fioccare (∗) to snow
gelare (see also
section 22.4)
to freeze
grandinare (∗) to hail
lampeggiare (∗) to flash (of lightning)
piovere (∗) to rain
nevicare (∗) to snow
sgelare (see also
section 22.4)
to thaw
spiovere (see also
section 22.4)
to stop raining
tuonare (∗) to thunder
When used to refer to things other than the weather:
piovere (R2–3) takes essere, e.g.:
Gli sono piovute addosso disgrazie a non finire.
No end of bad luck poured down on him.
But lampeggiare and tuonare take avere, e.g.:
Il semaforo dev’essere rotto: ha lampeggiato tutta la notte.
The traffic light must be broken: it flashed all night.
Il predicatore ha tuonato contro il malcostume generale (R3).
The preacher railed against the widespread immorality.
22.3 Verbs that take either according to grammatical
construction
While the basic meaning of these verbs remains the same, they take avere
when used transitively, and essere when used intransitively.
(i) Verbs expressing motion
discendere, montare, salire, scendere, e.g.:
Abbiamo salito/sceso le scale.
We climbed up/down the stairs.
Siamo saliti/scesi per le scale.
We came up/down by the stairs.
(ii) Verbs expressing beginning, continuing, ceasing
cessare, cominciare, continuare, finire, incominciare, iniziare,
proseguire (but see section 22.4), seguire, seguitare, terminare, e.g.:
298
22.3 Verbs that take either according to construction
Il direttore ha iniziato il concerto con un discorso.
The conductor began the concert with a speech.
Il concerto `e iniziato alle otto in punto.
The concert began at eight on the dot.
They take avere when followed by an infinitive (even one that would take
essere), e.g.:
Gli ospiti hanno continuato ad arrivare per tutto il pomeriggio.
The guests kept arriving all afternoon.
However, cominciare may take essere (in R2–3) when used with a verb
that takes essere, especially if the subject comes after the verb, e.g.:
Sono cominciati a volare insulti.
Insults began to fly.
(iii) Verbs expressing living
vivere: avere when transitive; essere when intransitive (also avere in
R1–2), e.g.:
La nonna ha vissuto una vita coraggiosa.
The grandmother lived a courageous life.
La nonna `e vissuta (ha vissuto) in modo coraggioso.
The grandmother lived courageously.
note convivere to cohabit usually takes avere.
(iv) Verbs which form transitive/intransitive pairs
In many cases the object of the transitive verb is the same as the subject of
the corresponding intransitive verb (in English, these pairs may be
expressed by the same verb, or by two different verbs; in these cases the
transitive meaning is given first), e.g.:
L’esperienza ha invecchiato mio padre di dieci anni.
The experience aged my father by ten years.
In quel momento mio padre `e invecchiato di dieci anni.
At that moment my father aged by ten years.
Il viaggio in Italia ha migliorato il tuo italiano.
The trip to Italy has improved your Italian.
Il tuo italiano `e migliorato grazie al viaggio in Italia.
Your Italian has improved thanks to your trip to Italy.
affogare to drown
affondare to sink
annegare to drown
appoggiare to lean
also reflexive, esp for persons;
arrostire to roast
assordare to deafen/go deaf
atterrare to land
aumentare to increase
avanzare to advance; have/be in excess
bruciare to burn
calare to drop
299
22 Auxiliary verbs in compound tenses
cambiare to change
colare a picco (see also
section 22.4)
to sink (of a ship)
crescere to grow
derivare to derive
dimagrire to make thin/become thin (lose weight)
diminuire to diminish
esplodere to explode
filtrare to filter
girare (∗) to turn
guarire to cure/get better
imbiancare to whiten
imbianchire to whiten
ingrandire to make large/become large
ingrassare to fatten/become fat
ingrossare to make large/become large
insospettire to make suspicious/become suspicious
intimidire to make timid/become timid
invecchiare to age
lievitare (∗) to leaven/rise
maturare to mature
migliorare (see also
section 22.4)
to improve
mutare (R2–3) to change
passare (see also
section 22.4)
to pass (of time)
peggiorare (see also
section 22.4)
to worsen
pesare (∗) to weigh
precipitare (R2–3) to precipitate
raddoppiare to double
retrocedere (R2–3) to push back/move back
ribassare to lower
note abbassare is only transitive
rincarare to increase, heighten
ringiovanire to make/get young (again)
risuscitare to revive
rotolare to roll
salpare to weigh (anchor)
sbarcare to disembark
sbiadire to fade
sbiancare to make white/turn white
schizzare to spray
scorrere to read quickly/flow
scurire to make dark/grow dark
300
22.3 Verbs that take either according to construction
also reflexive
sfogare to give vent to/pour forth
also reflexive, esp for persons
sfumare to tone down/disappear
soffriggere to fry lightly
sporgere to protrude
sprizzare to spray
sprofondare to throw down/fall
stillare (R2–3) to ooze, exude
trascorrere to pass (of time)
variare (see also section
22.4)
to vary
There are many verbs that used to have this transitive/intransitive usage
but nowadays tend to be used in the reflexive to express the intransitive
meaning (cf. section 24.5). The past participle with essere is usually felt
more as an adjective, e.g.:
Abbiamo cotto la pasta.
We cooked the pasta.
La pasta si `e cotta per otto minuti precisi.
The pasta cooked for eight minutes exactly.
La pasta `e cotta: tutti a tavola!
The pasta is cooked: everyone to the table!
This trend seems to be spreading. For the following verbs it is well
established:
accorciare to shorten
accrescere to increase
aggravare to make/become more serious
ammalare to make/fall ill
arricchire to make/become rich
arrugginire to rust
asciugare to dry
calare to drop
chiarire to clarify
cuocere to cook
fondere to melt, to fuse
gelare to freeze (as a weather verb, see
section 22.2)
gonfiare to enlarge
imbrunire to make/become dark
impaurire to frighten
inasprire to make/become harsh
indebolire to weaken
ingelosire to make/become jealous
muovere to move
prosciugare to dry up
301
22 Auxiliary verbs in compound tenses
rinfrescare to refresh
rinforzare to reinforce
ringiovanire to rejuvenate
riscaldare to warm
sbigottire to dismay
schiarire to clear up
scottare to burn
sgelare to thaw (as a weather verb, see
section 22.2)
sgonfiare to deflate
soffocare to suffocate
spianare to level
stupire to amaze
susseguire (R3) to follow on
One verb with three distinct usages is sfollare. As a transitive verb, it
means to clear (a place of people); as intransitive with essere, it means to
disperse; as a reflexive, it means to (become) empty.
La polizia ha sfollato il teatro.
The police cleared the theatre.
La gente `e sfollata senza panico.
The people dispersed without panic.
Il teatro si `e sfollato rapidamente.
The theater emptied quickly.
22.4 Verbs that take either according to meaning
These verbs are intransitive, except in certain special uses. They take avere
or essere in accordance with changes of meaning.
(i) Certain verbs of movement
correre, emigrare, saltare, volare: avere when manner of motion verbs
(cf. chapter 21); essere when change of location verbs; essere in
figurative usage, e.g.:
Il maratoneta ha corso a Roma / `E corso a Roma.
The marathon runner ran (a race) in Rome / He ran to Rome.
Ha emigrato negli anni 50 / `E emigrata in Australia.
She emigrated in the 1950s / She emigrated to Australia.
Ha saltato per la gioia / `E saltata dalla finestra.
She jumped for joy / She jumped out the window.
Non ho mai volato con l’Alitalia / Sono volato in banca prima
che chiudesse.
I’ve never flown Alitalia / I rushed to the bank before it closed.
Sono corso/volato a prendere il treno.
(implies I caught the train by running).
Ho corso/volato per prendere il treno.
302
22.4 Verbs that take either according to meaning
(implies I ran, in order to catch the train, but the outcome is
ambiguous; cf. section 27.5.1).
note: correre and saltare take avere when transitive, e.g.:
Abbiamo corso molti rischi nel venire qua.
We have run many risks in coming here.
Ho saltato il pranzo perch´e avevo da fare.
I skipped lunch because I was busy.
note: verbs derived from correre:
accorrere, decorrere, incorrere, intercorrere, occorrere, ricorrere
always take essere;
concorrere, discorrere are intransitive and always take avere;
percorrere, precorrere, rincorrere, ripercorrere, soccorrere are
transitive;
scorrere and trascorrere (cf. section 22.3) take both, e.g.:
Ho scorso rapidamente il giornale.
I skimmed the newspaper.
Il traffico `e scorso bene per l’intero periodo festivo.
Traffic flowed well for the entire holiday period.
(ii) Human vs non-human subject
Some verbs tend to take avere when the subject is a human person
(or sometimes an animal), and essere when the subject is an inanimate
object, e.g.:
Il paziente ha (or `e) peggiorato da ieri sera.
The patient has worsened since last night.
La situazione economica `e peggiorata.
The economic situation has worsened.
abortire to abort/have a miscarriage
appartenere to belong
fallire to fail/go bankrupt
migliorare (see also section 22.3) to improve
peggiorare (see also section 22.3) to worsen
procedere (see also below) to proceed
progredire to progress
proseguire (see also section 22.3) to continue
variare (see also section 22.3) to vary
(iii) Verbs of emission of liquid or smell:
A number of verbs may take avere when the subject is the container or
source of the emission, and essere when the subject is the thing being
emitted, e.g.:
Il lago ha evaporato quest’estate.
The lake evaporated this summer.
L’alcol `e evaporato durante la cottura.
The alcohol evaporated during the cooking.
303
22 Auxiliary verbs in compound tenses
colare to drip, ooze
note for colare a picco, see section 22.3.
emanare to emanate
evaporare to evaporate
gocciolare to drip
profumare to perfume
scolare to drain
sgocciolare to drain, drip
traboccare to overflow
tracimare to overflow
note spiovere takes only essere when meaning to pour down
(cf. section 22.2).
A similar verb is abbondare, which often takes avere when the subject is
the person or thing which has something in abundance, essere when the
subject is the thing in abundance, e.g.:
Abbiamo abbondato (la dispensa ha abbondato) di provviste.
We had (the pantry had) plenty of provisions.
I viveri sono abbondati durante il viaggio.
The food was plentiful during the trip.
(iv) Various other verbs
convenire: avere meaning agree; essere meaning to behove/suit, or to
congregate (R3), e.g.:
Abbiamo convenuto sul prezzo.
We agreed on the price.
Il prezzo mi `e convenuto.
The price suited me.
durare: avere for durability of an object; essere of an event, e.g.:
Queste scarpe hanno durato molto a lungo.
These shoes have lasted a long time.
Il film `e durato due ore.
The film lasted two hours.
also Ho durato fatica a risolvere il problema (R3).
I labored hard to solve the problem.
evadere, fuggire, sfuggire: avere meaning to avoid or evade; essere
meaning to escape, e.g.:
`E
diventato un orso: ha (s)fuggito anche gli amici pi `u cari.
He has become unsociable (lit. “a bear”): he has avoided even his
dearest friends.
Secondo i giornali, avrebbe evaso le tasse per anni.
According to the papers, he is alleged to have evaded his tax for years.
L’abbiamo visto in piazza, ma `e (s)fuggito senza salutarci.
We saw him in the piazza, but he fled without saying hello.
304
22.4 Verbs that take either according to meaning
incrudelire (R3): avere meaning to act cruelly, essere meaning to become
cruel, e.g.:
Il tiranno ha incrudelito contro la popolazione intera.
the tyrant was cruel to the whole population.
Il tiranno `e incrudelito in seguito alla rivolta popolare.
The tyrant grew cruel following the popular uprising.
interessare: avere meaning to concern, affect; essere meaning to be of
interest, e.g.:
Il problema ha interessato tutta una generazione di giovani.
The issue affected a whole generation of young people.
Gli sono interessate tutte le questioni ambientali.
All the environmental issues interested them.
mancare: avere meaning to miss, or to fail in an obligation (cf. section
27.7); essere meaning to be missing, to lack, e.g.:
Ho mancato la porta di poco.
I just missed the goal.
Mi sei mancata.
I missed you.
Lei `e mancata a scuola per tre giorni.
She was not at school for three days.
passare: avere/essere for meanings to do with time (see section 22.3);
essere meaning to go past, e.g.:
Sono passato davanti a casa tua.
I passed in front of your house.
also ripassare: avere meaning to review; essere meaning to pass by
again
procedere: avere meaning to progress; essere meaning to behave, e.g.:
Ha proceduto da persona onesta.
He behaved like an honest person.
`E
proceduto notevolmente.
He has progressed considerably.
scampare: avere meaning to avoid or to save; essere meaning to survive,
e.g.:
Ha scampato il pericolo per fortuna.
She avoided the danger through good luck.
`E
scampata al massacro in cui `e perita tutta la sua famiglia.
She survived the massacre in which her whole family perished.
scattare: avere meaning to take (a photograph); essere meaning to jump or
leap into action, e.g.:
Abbiamo scattato tante foto del Foro.
We took lots of photos of the Forum.
Siamo scattati in piedi quando `e entrato il Presidente.
We jumped to our feet when the President came in.
schiantare: avere meaning to break; essere meaning to die (R1–2), e.g.:
Il vento ha schiantato le cime degli alberi.
The wind snapped off the tops of the trees.
Siamo schiantati dalle risate.
We died laughing.
305
22 Auxiliary verbs in compound tenses
scivolare: avere or essere when referring to physical movement; essere
with the figurative meaning of slipping away/through one’s fingers etc., e.g.:
Ho scivolato sul ghiaccio.
I slipped on the ice.
Sei scivolato via e non si `e accorto nessuno.
You slipped away and no one noticed.
Il bicchiere mi `e scivolato tra le mani.
The glass slipped through my hands.
servire: avere meaning to provide service; essere meaning to be useful, e.g.:
Ha servito a tavola in casa di nobili.
He served at table in a noble house.
Il suo consiglio non `e servito proprio a niente.
His advice was no use at all.
sfilare: avere meaning to take by stealth; essere meaning to file past, e.g.:
Ti hanno sfilato il portafoglio dalla tasca.
They sneaked your wallet from your pocket.
Sono sfilati in corteo.
They filed past in a procession.
suonare: avere when subject is person or thing making sound, or
resounding (also essere, R3); essere when subject is a fact announced by
a sound, e.g.:
Ha suonato il telefono.
The phone rang.
Le sue parole hanno suonato (also sono suonate) nell’aula
vuota.
His words resounded in the empty hall.
`E
appena suonato mezzogiorno.
Midday has just rung.
avere when transitive, meaning to play an instrument etc., e.g.:
Io ho suonato il violino quando ero a scuola.
I played the violin when I was at school.
22.5 Modal verbs
The modal verbs dovere, potere, volere take avere if the following
infinitive is a verb that takes avere. If the verb that follows takes essere,
the modals may take essere (R2–3) or avere (R1–2). This may also occur
with sapere but only in higher registers, e.g.:
Abbiamo dovuto/potuto/voluto dormire all’aperto.
We had to/could/wanted to sleep in the open.
Siamo dovuti/potuti/voluti partire presto (R2–3).
Abbiamo dovuto/potuto/voluto partire presto (R1–2).
We had to/could/wanted to leave early.
If the infinitive is essere or in the passive, the auxiliary is avere, e.g.:
Avrebbe dovuto essere qui a quest’ora.
She should have been here by now.
306
22.6 Pronouns and auxiliaries
If the modal verb is emphasized or used without a following infinitive,
avere is used, e.g.:
Nonostante tutto, ha dovuto partire.
Despite everything, she had to (was obliged to) leave.
Non voleva partire, ma ha dovuto.
She didn’t want to leave, but she had to.
22.6 Pronouns and auxiliaries
With modal verbs the position of a pronoun determines choice of
auxiliary in two ways:
(i) ci, ne (cf. section 16.4)
Non ci sono potuto andare (not Non ci ho potuto andare)
Non ho potuto andarci (also Non sono potuto andarci)
I wasn’t able to go there
Non ne sono potuto uscire (not Non ne ho potuto uscire)
Non ho potuto uscirne (also Non sono potuto uscirne)
I wasn’t able to get out of there
(ii) With reflexives
Mi sono dovuto svegliare (not Mi ho dovuto svegliare)
Ho dovuto svegliarmi (not Sono dovuto svegliarmi)
I had to wake up
note: this is similar to the way that pronoun position affects normal
auxiliary choice with reflexive verbs (see section 24.1):
Ho vestito me stesso (e poi i bambini) vs Mi sono vestito
I dressed myself (and then the children) vs I got dressed
note: cominciare can act in the same way as modal verbs with
reflexives:
Si `e cominciato a spostare or Ha cominciato a spostarsi
It started to move.
307
23 The passive
The Italian passive, like the English passive, is a construction which
focusses attention on the object of an action (for the passive with si, see
section 24.6). The direct object of a transitive verb becomes the subject of
the passive. The passive with essere may be used in all tenses and moods,
and with modals:
Le innovazioni caravaggesche furono adottate da artisti di
molti paesi.
Caravaggio’s innovations were adopted by artists in many countries.
Credo che le prenotazioni siano gi`a state chiuse.
I think bookings have already been closed.
Questa proposta potrebbe essere riformulata per la prossima
riunione.
This proposal could be reworked for the next meeting.
23.1 Passive with venire
The passive may be formed with venire instead of essere to express an
action rather than a state. This often avoids the ambiguity of essere + past
participle, which may express a passive event, or may describe a state with
the participle acting as adjective. Venire may be used as auxiliary only in
the simple tenses, indicative and subjunctive, i.e. present, imperfect, passato
remoto, future, and conditional, and is most often used with the third
person. It is characteristic of R2–3, e.g.:
La mostra viene aperta alle 4.
The exhibition is being/gets opened at 4 o’clock.
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
308
23.4 Expression of the agent
La mostra `e aperta alle 4.
The exhibition is open (or is being opened) at 4 o’clock.
23.2 Passive with andare
The passive formed with andare expresses obligation or opportuneness.
This only occurs with the simple tenses, i.e. present, imperfect, future, and
conditional, but not passato remoto. It is only found in the third person, in
all registers:
Il modulo va riempito in ogni sua parte.
The form must be completed in all sections.
La pasta andava tolta prima.
The pasta should have been taken off (the heat) sooner.
The agent is not usually expressed with the andare passive. If an agent is
to be expressed with a passive involving obligation, dovere is used, e.g.:
Il modulo deve essere riempito dal genitore o chi ne fa le veci.
The form must be completed by the parent or guardian.
Andare is also used as an alternative to essere, and without any notion of
obligation, with a few verbs expressing a negative result such as loss or
damage, e.g. perdere, disperdere, smarrire, distruggere, dimenticare,
deludere, bruciare, spendere, etc. This occurs in all tenses, e.g.:
Il manoscritto and`o perduto nel Cinquecento.
The manuscript was lost in the sixteenth century.
Molti quadri sono andati distrutti durante la guerra.
Many paintings were destroyed during the war.
23.3 Passive with rimanere and restare
The passive may be formed with rimanere or restare with a small
number of verbs expressing surprise, e.g.:
Nel sentire la notizia, siamo rimasti sorpresi/delusi/interdetti.
On hearing the news, we were surprised/disappointed/dumbfounded.
23.4 Expression of the agent
The agent is preceded by da (although in the majority of passive
sentences, no agent is indicated). If the passive action is expressed by a
noun or adjective, the agent is preceded by da parte di, e.g.:
La prospettiva fu usata da Brunelleschi.
Perspective was used by Brunelleschi.
L’uso della prospettiva da parte di Brunelleschi fu l’inizio
dell’arte rinascimentale.
The use of perspective by Brunelleschi was the beginning of
Renaissance art.
309
23 The passive
Queste condizioni non sono accettabili da parte dei (or dai)
sindacati.
These conditions are not acceptable by/to the unions.
23.5 Indirect objects
Unlike in English, an indirect object in Italian cannot become the subject
of a passive verb, but must remain indirect, e.g.:
A Giuseppe sono stati mandati i risultati sbagliati.
Giuseppe was sent the wrong results.
Le `e stato chiesto di parlare delle sue esperienze in Italia.
She has been asked to speak about her experiences in Italy.
23.6 Other ways of expressing the passive
The passive is found more often in higher registers. In informal speech,
other ways of placing the emphasis on the object are preferred. These
include using a “marked” word order, such as moving the object to the
left, i.e. to the normal position of the subject, or using a cleft sentence (see
section 18.2). Compare:
Gli spaghetti sono stati fatti da mia zia.
Gli spaghetti li ha fatti mia zia.
E’ mia zia che ha fatto gli spaghetti.
An impersonal subject may be used (see section 24.9). Compare:
A Giuseppe sono stati mandati i risultati sbagliati.
A Giuseppe hanno mandato i risultati sbagliati.
310
24 Reflexives and impersonals
The Italian reflexive has many different functions, some of which are not
paralleled in English. Reflexive verbs always take the auxiliary essere,
except in the case mentioned in section 24.1. The reflexive pronoun is
omitted when the reflexive verb is an infinitive depending on fare or
lasciare, e.g.:
Lo hanno fatto pentire (not pentirsi) delle sue parole.
They made him regret his words.
24.1 Direct reflexives
Most transitive verbs can be used reflexively when subject and object
coincide. Direct reflexives are usually defined as taking unstressed reflexive
pronouns (before the verb) and essere in compound tenses. However,
they may also take stressed pronouns (cf. chapter 16): these follow the
verb, and avere is used (cf. section 22.6), e.g.:
Mi sono vestito / Ho vestito i bambini (e poi me stesso).
I (got) dressed / I dressed the children (and then myself ).
24.2 Indirect reflexives
The reflexive pronoun is an indirect object and expresses greater
involvement in the action by the subject. This is increasingly common in
R1–2. In compound tenses, the past participle agrees with the subject (or
with the object, R3):
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
311
24 Reflexives and impersonals
Chiara si `e mangiata (or mangiato, R3) un bel piatto di
spaghetti.
Chiara had (herself ) a lovely plate of spaghetti.
The participle agrees with a direct object if it is a preceding pronoun, e.g.:
I biscotti, se li `e mangiati Emilia.
The biscuits, it was Emilia who ate them up.
An indirect reflexive is the usual way of expressing possession of parts of
body or items of clothing, e.g.:
Elena si `e rotta un braccio/si `e messa il cappotto.
Elena broke her arm/put on her coat.
Some verbs have an indirect reflexive form which carries a subtle but
perceptible change of meaning, in terms of greater involvement by the
subject. This usage seems to be increasing in R1–2.
approfittare (di) to take advantage (of ) approfittarsi (di) to take advantage (of ),
esp in negative sense
incontrare to meet incontrarsi (con) to have a meeting with
sbagliare to make a mistake sbagliarsi to err, be in the wrong
sedere to be seated sedersi to sit down
Several verbs of motion and state can be similarly “intensified” through
the addition of se + ne; cf. section 4.5.2.
24.3 Reciprocal reflexives
In the plural, the reflexive can express reciprocal actions. Ambiguity
between direct and reciprocal reflexives can be removed through
expressions such as reciprocamente, a vicenda, scambievolmente,
l’un l’altro, gli uni con gli altri, etc.:
I prigionieri si accusavano del delitto.
This could mean “The prisoners accused each other of the crime”
or “The prisoners accused themselves of the crime.”
I prigionieri si accusavano a vicenda del delitto.
The prisoners accused each other of the crime.
24.4 Inherent reflexives
A number of verbs exist only in the reflexive form and in most cases there
is nothing particularly reflexive about their meaning. They are all
intransitive, e.g.:
accorgersi (di) to notice
arrendersi to surrender, give oneself up
avvalersi (di) (R2–3) to make use (of )
congratularsi (con qu) to congratulate (sb)
imbattersi (in) to come across, run into
312
24.5 Reflexive as marker of intransitive
impadronirsi (di) to take possession of, master (sth)
lagnarsi (di) to complain (of/about)
pentirsi (di) to repent, regret
ribellarsi (a) to rebel (against)
suicidarsi to take one’s own life
vergognarsi (di) to be ashamed (at/of )
24.5 The reflexive as marker of the intransitive
The reflexive form is used simply as the intransitive counterpart of many
transitives. This usage appears to be growing (cf. section 22.3), e.g.:
abbattere to knock down abbattersi to lose heart
accostare to put near accostarsi to approach
addormentare to put to sleep addormentarsi to fall asleep
allontanare to push away allontanarsi to move away
alzare to raise alzarsi to get up
annoiare to bore annoiarsi to get bored
arrabbiare to enrage arrabbiarsi to get angry
avviare to set in motion avviarsi to set out
avvicinare to move near (tr) avvicinarsi (a) to approach
deprimere to depress deprimersi to get depressed
destare (R2–3) to waken destarsi (R2–3) to wake up
fermare to stop (tr) fermarsi to stop (intr)
gonfiare to inflate gonfiarsi to swell up
guastare to damage guastarsi to break down
imbarcare to take on board imbarcarsi to go on board
infiammare to inflame infiammarsi to catch fire (fig)
invogliare to attract invogliarsi (di) (R3) to take a fancy (to)
irritare to irritate irritarsi to become irritated
meravigliare to surprise meravigliarsi to wonder
muovere to move (tr) muoversi to move (intr)
offendere to offend offendersi to get offended
rasserenare to calm (tr) rasserenarsi to become calm (again)
rattristare to sadden rattristarsi to become sad
rendere conto (di) to give an
account of
rendersi conto (di) to realize
ritirare to withdraw (tr) ritirarsi to withdraw (intr)
rivolgere to turn (tr) rivolgersi to turn to (intr)
scoraggiare to discourage scoraggiarsi to become discouraged
spaventare to frighten spaventarsi to become frightened
stancare to tire (tr) stancarsi to get tired
stupire to amaze stupirsi to be amazed
svegliare to waken svegliarsi to wake up
trattenere to hold back trattenersi to hold oneself back
voltare to turn (tr) voltarsi to turn (intr)
313
24 Reflexives and impersonals
Some verbs have three possible constructions, e.g. dimenticare,
ricordare, scordare, sposare. The reflexive as intransitive requires a
preposition. The meaning of these groups of sentences is essentially the
same, e.g.:
Ha sposato un’italiana (transitive).
Si `e sposato un’italiana (R1–2) (indirect reflexive).
Si `e sposato con un’italiana (reflexive as intransitive).
24.6 The passive reflexive
In the third person, the reflexive may be used to express the passive. With
the si passive, the agent is not usually expressed: the essere passive is used
for that, cf. chapter 23. The verb agrees with the grammatical subject and
the auxiliary in compound tenses is always essere, e.g.:
Qui si parla italiano.
Italian (is) spoken here.
In Italia si parlano molti dialetti.
Many dialects are spoken in Italy.
Si sono vendute mille copie del suo primo cd.
1000 copies of her first cd were sold.
The rules for verb agreement and auxiliary choice also apply with modal
verbs, e.g.:
Si sono dovuti ristampare tutti i biglietti.
All the tickets had to be reprinted.
24.7 The impersonal reflexive with transitive verbs
The passive use of the reflexive often merges with an impersonal meaning.
As before, verb agreement is compulsory and the auxiliary is essere,
e.g.:
Non si possono accettare lettere anonime.
One cannot accept anonymous letters
(or Anonymous letters cannot be accepted).
Non si `e mai vista una cosa simile.
One has never seen anything like this
(or Nothing like this has ever been seen).
I risultati si sono visti subito.
One saw the results immediately.
The position of si may suggest either a passive or an impersonal meaning,
e.g.:
Questo si pu`o capire facilmente.
One can understand this easily.
Questo pu`o capirsi facilmente.
This can be understood easily.
314
24.8 Impersonal reflexive with intransitive verbs
The fact that the impersonal si looks like the subject of the verb means
that the verb could agree with si in older Italian, but today only in R1,
e.g.:
Si vede tante cose strane in questi giorni.
You see many strange things these days.
When the subject of an impersonal reflexive is a pronoun, it takes the
form of an object pronoun and precedes the si. The verb is always in the
singular, but a past participle agrees with the object pronoun, e.g.:
Non ti si vede in giro in questi giorni.
One doesn’t see you around these days.
Le albicocche? Le si compra in primavera.
Apricots? One buys them in spring.
Le albicocche? L’anno scorso le si `e comprate tutta la
primavera.
Apricots? Last year one bought them all spring.
An impersonal reflexive may combine with any other reflexive (direct,
indirect, reciprocal or inherent). To avoid si si, the first si becomes ci, e.g.:
ci si alza; ci si fa un bel caff`e; ci si saluta; non ci si accorge di
niente
one gets up; one makes oneself a nice coffee; everyone greets each
other; one notices nothing.
24.8 The impersonal reflexive with intransitive verbs
The use of si with intransitive verbs can only be interpreted as impersonal,
since there can be no passive meaning. The verb is always singular, e.g.:
Si viaggia bene in prima classe.
One travels well in first class.
Any adjective or noun referring to the si is in the masculine plural (or
feminine plural if reference is exclusively to females). This is most
common with essere, stare, diventare, but it applies with any intransitive
verb, e.g.:
si `e giovani; si dorme tranquilli; si vive contenti
one is young; one sleeps peacefully; one lives happy (or happily)
si `e donne; si `e vedove; si `e incinte
one is (a) woman; one is a widow; one is pregnant
In fact, adjectives and nouns referring to any impersonal expression are in
the masculine plural, e.g.:
La citt`a `e bella d’agosto: basta non essere soli.
The city is beautiful in August: just make sure you’re not alone.
Bisognerebbe essere sognatori pi `u spesso.
One should be a dreamer more often.
E’ impossibile non essere attratti dalla sua forte personalit`a.
It is impossible not to be attracted by his strong personality.
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24 Reflexives and impersonals
In compound tenses, the ending of the participle depends on the type of
verb:
(i) The participle ends in -o if the verb normally takes avere, e.g.:
Si `e lavorato per tre giorni su questo problema.
One worked on this problem for three days.
The participle ends in -i, or -e, as with adjectives and nouns above, if the
verb normally takes essere. This includes:
(ii) intransitive verbs which take essere (cf. section 22.2)
si `e usciti presto; si `e stati in casa
one got out early; one remained in the house
(iii) passive of transitive verbs
si `e ammirati; si `e ammirate
one is admired; a woman is admired
(iv) reflexives
ci si `e vergognati; ci si sente stanchi
one felt ashamed; one feels tired
The impersonal reflexive is used in place of the first person plural in
Central Italy, especially Tuscany, and occasionally elsewhere (R1–2):
Si va? Ci si vede domani!
Andiamo? Ci vediamo domani!
24.9 Other impersonal subjects
Other ways of expressing a general, impersonal subject are: uno, tu
(which may even be used – with care – when using the Lei form of
address), or use of the third person plural, e.g.:
Quando uno `e fatto cos`ı, non c’`e niente da fare.
When someone is like that, there is nothing to be done.
Quando ti trovi in quella situazione l`ı, non capisci niente.
When you find yourself in that situation, you don’t understand a thing.
Hanno licenziato il Presidente.
They have sacked the President or The President has been sacked.
24.10 Impersonal objects
Impersonal si can never be used as an object. It may be replaced by ci
(R2–3) or ti (R1–2), e.g.:
Si `e felici se ci scrivono (R3).
One is happy if they write to one.
Se ti beccano senza documento, sei fregato (R1).
If they catch you without id, you’re in trouble.
In more elevated styles, an impersonal object may be omitted altogether.
Usually an English translation must include an object, e.g.:
316
24.10 Impersonal objects
Questo esperimento permette di verificare le ultime ipotesi.
This experiment allows one/us to test the latest hypotheses
or This experiment allows the latest hypotheses to be tested.
With “impersonal verbs,” which usually use an indirect object pronoun to
indicate the logical subject (cf. section 27.2.1), impersonal reference is
achieved by omitting a pronoun altogether, e.g.:
Sembra di mangiare cartone.
It’s like eating cardboard (lit It seems [to one] to eat cardboard).
317

THE SENTENCE – combining clauses

25 Italian prepositions
Italian grammars traditionally divide prepositions into two groups. The
“preposizioni proprie” are, in order of frequency of use, di, a, da, in,
con, su, per, tra/fra. Of these, a, da, di, in, su are always articulated
when used with the definite article (i.e. combine with it to produce alla,
della, etc.). In modern Italian, per and tra/fra are no longer articulated.
Con is only usually articulated in speech, and usually R1–2. The
“preposizioni improprie” were originally adverbs and in modern Italian
can be used as prepositions or adverbs: e.g. contro, davanti, dietro,
sotto, sopra. They are never articulated.
25.1 a
In modern Italian a becomes ad usually only before another word
beginning with a, but higher registers continue the tradition of using ad
before words beginning with any vowel.
ad alta voce, ad (or a) Ancona (all registers)
ad Empoli, ad Imola, ad Otranto, ad Udine (R2–3)
25.1.1 Basic meanings
(a) destination, direction; generally corresponds to English to
vado al ristorante, vado a Roma
I’m going to the restaurant, I’m going to Rome
(b) location; corresponds to English at or in
sono a casa, abitano a Milano
They are at home, they live in Milan
(c) point in time
alle due; a mezzogiorno
at two o’clock; at midday
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
321
25 Italian prepositions
25.1.2 Expressing time
alle due del mattino at two in the morning
all’alba at dawn
a mezzogiorno/mezzanotte at midday/midnight
all’inizio del mese/dell’anno at the beginning of the month/
year
alla fine del mese/anno at the end of the month/year
a vent’anni/all’et`a di at twenty years of age
vent’anni (R3)
allo/nello stesso tempo at the same time
ai nostri tempi nowadays
ai tempi dei comuni in the time of the communes
a prima vista at first sight
a domani/presto/dopo see you tomorrow/soon/later
al cessare della musica when the music ended
25.1.3 Expressing rate (= distribution, price, and measure)
a uno a uno one by one
a decine/dozzine/centinaia by the ten/dozen/hundred
uno alla volta one at a time
due volte alla settimana (cf. per) twice a week
a giorni alterni on alternate days
lo vende a un euro all’etto she sells it at one euro
per 100 grams
lo vende a buon mercato she sells it cheaply
vendere al dettaglio/all’ingrosso to sell retail/wholesale
a (una velocit`a di) cento at 100 km an hour (60 mph)
chilometri all’ora
pagare a rate to pay in instalments
25.1.4 Expressing manner
a bocca aperta open-mouthed
alla bolognese/milanese/
napoletana
in the style of Bologna/Milan/
Naples
all’italiana in the Italian style
fare alla romana to go Dutch, pay one’s own way
spaghetti al sugo/rag`u spaghetti with tomato sauce/
ragout
gelato al cioccolato chocolate ice-cream
gelato alla frutta fruit ice-cream
cuocere a fuoco lento to cook over a slow heat
a ogni costo/a tutti i costi at any cost
giocare a carte to play cards
prendere qc alla leggera to take sth lightly
a lungo for a long time
322
25.1 a
a modo mio in my own way
alla maniera di Caravaggio
but: in modo/maniera elegante
in Caravaggio’s style
in an elegant manner
alla moda in fashion
`e alla moda it/he/she conforms to current
fashion
but: `e di moda it is in fashion/in vogue
a memoria by heart
a passo d’uomo at a walking pace
a mio parere/avviso in my opinion
a mio modo di vedere the way I see things . . .
al contrario/all’inverso on the contrary, the opposite
way, vice versa
alla rovescia/al rovescio/ a
rovescio
upside-down, back to front,
inside out, the wrong way
conto alla rovescia count-down
a ritroso/all’indietro backwards
a spese mie at my expense
a bassa voce/ad alta voce in a low/loud voice
a quattro zampe on all fours
a tutta velocit`a at full speed
a tutto gas, a tutta birra (R1) flat out, at full speed
a tu per tu/a quattr’occhi face to face
25.1.5 Expressing place
all’equatore at/on the equator
ai Tropici in/to the Tropics
al polo nord at/to the north pole
all’orizzonte on/to the horizon
a casa/a casa di Maria (at) home/at /to Maria’s place
al telefono on the telephone
al sole in the sun
all’aperto in the open air
al fresco
al fresco della sera
open-air (R1 = in jail)
in the cool evening air
all’ombra in the shade
alla radio/televisione on the radio/TV
a bordo di on board
a met`a strada half-way there
a/in contatto con in contact with
al collo around one’s neck
a destra/sinistra on/to the right/left
alle spalle (di qu) behind sb’s back
ferito a una mano/gamba wounded in one hand/leg
si guard`o allo specchio he looked at himself in the
mirror
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25 Italian prepositions
alla luce di in the light of (lit and fig)
a tavola at the table
a livello letterario on the literary level
alla/sulla riva del mare at the seashore
suonare una canzone al pianoforte play a song on the piano
a letto in bed
a teatro/scuola at/to the theater/school
note also the general expression of distance from something:
essere a (due chilometri) da (casa mia)
to be (two kilometres) from (my place)
25.1.6 Expressing kind
un sacco a pelo a sleeping-bag
una bomba a mano a hand grenade
un dipinto a mano a hand-drawn design
una villa a due piani a two-storey villa
una barca a remi/vela a row/sail boat
pantaloni a zampa d’elefante flared trousers
una nave a vapore a steamship
rapina a mano armata armed hold-up
25.1.7 Expressing instrument
andare a piedi to go on foot, to walk
chiudere a chiave to lock
fatto a mano/macchina made by hand/machine
scrivere a macchina to type
a cavallo/cavalluccio on horseback/piggy-back
25.1.8 Adverbial idioms with a
stare a proprio agio to be at one’s ease
a bruciapelo point-blank
alla cheticella stealthily
alla cieca blindly
piove a dirotto/a catinelle it’s raining cats and dogs
alla grande (R1) big-time
vivere alla grande to live like a king
alla mano easy-going
alla meglio/alla bell’e meglio one way or another
agli occhi di qu in sb’s eyes
al potere in power
a rigore strictly speaking
a vista d’occhio in the blink of an eye
a volo d’uccello with a bird’s-eye view, as
the crow flies
324
25.1 a
e’ stato il primo/ etc./ultimo he was the first/ etc./last to do it
a farlo
al verde in the red, broke
a casaccio random
a che serve? what is it for?
agli arresti domiciliari under house arrest
25.1.9 “Personal” a (a with direct object)
In R1–2 speech, a is often used before a pronoun direct object which is
moved to the beginning of a sentence for emphasis, e.g.:
A noi chi ci paga? (= Chi paga noi?)
Who will pay us?
A is also used before a direct object which is an animate being, especially
human. This usage is confined to the South and is R1, e.g.:
Tommaso chiama a Chiara (= Tommaso chiama Chiara)
25.1.10 Complex prepositional expressions with a
all’altezza di
essere all’altezza del
compito (fig)
on a level with, abreast of (fig)
to be equal to the task
a causa di because of
a cura di prepared by, (of books) edited by
a differenza di unlike
a/in favore di in favor of
a fianco di alongside
a furia di by dint of
a guisa di by way of
a lato di by the side of
a livello di at the level of
a nome di on behalf of
a partire da starting from (a point in time)
a proposito di `a propos of, regarding
a scapito di at the expense of
a titolo di by way of (e.g. excuse)
al di sopra di over, above
al di sotto di beneath
al di l`a di on the other side of, beyond
al di l`a del bene e del male beyond good and evil
al di qua di on this side of
al di fuori di outside, apart from (not usu
physical)
un cittadino al di sopra di ogni
sospetto
a citizen above all suspicion
al di fuori di questi indizi, non
c’era altro
apart from these clues there was
nothing
325
25 Italian prepositions
Many prepositions expressing movement or position use a, e.g. accanto
a, davanti a, dietro a, sopra a, sotto a, vicino a.
25.2 attraverso
25.2.1 Movement
Expresses movement through or across space or time, or by means of.
attraverso la strada across the street
guardare attraverso un buco to look through a hole
attraverso i secoli through the centuries
attraverso lunghe indagini through long inquiries
25.2.2 Used as adverb
un albero si era messo
attraverso la strada
a tree was blocking the road
una nocciolina mi `e andata
attraverso/per traverso
a peanut has got stuck in my
throat/went down sideways
25.3 con
25.3.1 Basic meanings
(a) association; corresponds to English with
caff´e col latte
coffee with milk
un panino con il salame
a salame roll
viaggio insieme con altri
I’ll travel together with others
(b) instrument, or means of transport; corresponds to English with or by
ho aperto la lattina con un cacciavite
I opened the can with a screwdriver
viaggiare con l’aereo/la macchina/il tram/l’autobus/i
mezzi pubblici
to travel by plane/car/tram/bus/public transport (cf. section
25.11.2)
arriva con l’aereo delle tre
she’s arriving on the 3 o’clock plane
326
25.4 contro
(c) description (alternates with da)
una ragazza con i/dai (R2–3) capelli biondi
a girl with blonde hair
una camicia con le maniche corte
a short-sleeved shirt
(d) with adjectives that describe behavior that affects another person
gentile con/verso (R2–3) tutti
polite with everybody
sei troppo buono con tutti
you’re too nice to everyone
25.3.2 In adverbial phrases
con mia grande sorpresa/gioia to my great surprise/delight
con voce rauca/ferma in a hoarse/firm voice
con questo caldo `e difficile
lavorare
it’s hard to work with/in this
heat
vuoi uscire con questa pioggia? do you want to go out in this
rain?
con combines with many abstract nouns to create adverbial expressions
of manner, e.g.:
con chiarezza clearly
con pazienza patiently
con freddezza coldly
25.3.3 Idiomatic expressions with con
con tutti i suoi difetti lo trovo
simpatico
for/despite all his faults I like
him
con tutto il rispetto with all due respect
come va con il nuovo lavoro? how’s the new job going?
e con questo? (R1) so what?
col cavolo (R1)/col cazzo (R1∗) like hell/no way!
25.4 contro
25.4.1 Before nouns and pronouns
Contro before nouns, contro di before personal pronouns
ha messo la sedia contro la parete she put the chair against the
wall
la lotta contro la mafia the struggle against the mafia
uno contro tutti one against all
ha puntato il fucile contro di loro he aimed the rifle at them
327
25 Italian prepositions
25.4.2 Used as adverb
voter `o contro I’m voting against
sei pro o contro? are you for it or against it?
ho tutti contro I’ve got everyone against me
25.5 da
25.5.1 Basic meanings
(a) origin; corresponds to English from, out of
da Roma a Napoli
from Rome to Naples
dalle Alpi alle Piramidi
from the Alps to the Pyramids
dalle due alle tre
from 2 o’clock to 3 o’clock
l’espresso delle 14 e 30 proveniente da Venezia `e in arrivo
sul primo binario
the 2:30 express from Venice is arriving at platform one
togliere i vestiti dalla valigia
to take the clothes out of the suitcase
(b) cause or agent in passive constructions (an extension of [a]); see also
section 23.4
la lettera `e stata scritta dal suo amante
the letter was written by her lover
When the action is expressed by a noun rather than a verb, the
agent is introduced by da parte di, e.g.
l’approvazione da parte del Parlamento di queste leggi `e
una soluzione disperata
the approval of these laws by the Parliament is a desperate solution
tremare dalla paura (cf. tremare di paura, section 25.7.1)
to tremble with fear
non ci vedo dalla fame (R1)
I am starving (lit can’t see for hunger)
(c) location, with the name of a person; corresponds to English to, at
andiamo da Maria
let’s go to Maria’s
ti aspetto dall’avvocato
I’ll wait for you at the lawyer’s
facciamo la festa dai miei
we’re having the party at my parents’ place
328
25.5 da
(d) purpose
una tazza da t´e (cf una tazza di t´e, section 25.7.1)
a teacup
(e) description
la ragazzina dai capelli rossi
the little red-haired girl
si comporta sempre da gentiluomo
he always behaves like a gentleman
25.5.2 Expressing time
studio l’italiano da tre anni,
dal 1999
I’ve been studying Italian for three
years, since 1999
also e’ da tre anni che
studio l’italiano
cf. sono tre anni che studio
l’italiano
parlavamo da un’ora quando
`e arrivato il capo
we had been talking for an hour
when the boss arrived
abitiamo in questa casa da
quando ci siamo sposati
we’ve been living in this house
since we married
e’ cos`ı da sempre it’s always been like that
non la vedo da una vita I haven’t seen her for ages
ho finito di lavorare da pi `u di
un’ora
it’s over an hour since I finished
work
erano partiti da qualche
giorno
it was some days since they had left
d’ora in poi from now on
dall’oggi al domani from one day to the next
da un momento all’altro from one moment to the next
25.5.3 Expressing purpose
una macchina da scrivere a typewriter
un costume da bagno a swimming costume
gli occhiali da sole sunglasses
le scarpe da tennis tennis shoes
25.5.4 Expressing characteristics or description
lo trattano da imbecille they treat him like an idiot
da giovane as a youngster
da persona onesta, ha
restituito i soldi
being an honest person, he handed
the money back
329
25 Italian prepositions
un biglietto da 10 euro a 10-euro note
un francobollo da 50
centesimi
a 50-cent stamp
abito da sera evening gown
sordo dall’orecchio sinistro deaf in his left ear
io gli ho fatto da padre I acted as a father towards him
questa stanza serve da ufficio this room serves as an office
ho una fame da lupo! I’m starving!
non `e da lui parlare cos`ı it’s not like him to speak like that
25.5.5 da used with parte
da una parte . . . dall’altra on the one hand . . . on the other
dall’altra parte della
strada/del mondo
on/to/from the other side of the
street/world
da tutte le parti everywhere
da nessuna parte nowhere
d’altra parte, d’altro canto on the other hand
da parte di
da parte mia e dei miei
genitori
on behalf of
on behalf of my parents and myself
salutali da parte mia say hello to them from me
mio nonno dalla parte di mia
madre
my grandfather on my mother’s
side
abita dalle parti del Colosseo she lives in the area around the
Colosseum
dalle mie parti si mangiano i
funghi crudi
where I am from we eat
mushrooms raw
io sono dalla tua parte I’m on your side
25.5.6 With a verb in the infinitive (cf. section 27.4)
qualcosa da mangiare/bere sth to eat/drink
che cosa vuoi da bere? what would you like to drink?
niente da dichiarare nothing to declare
fa un caldo da morire It’s very hot
pazzo da legare stark raving mad
noioso da morire deadly boring
mi `e piaciuto da morire I liked it a lot
non `e da credere you can’t really believe it
c’`e da diventare matti it’s enough to drive you crazy
c’`e poco da ridere there’s nothing to laugh about
`e un’occasione da non
perdere
it’s an opportunity not be missed
330
25.6 davanti a, prima di, avanti, di fronte a
25.5.7 Adverbial expressions with da
dal mio punto di vista from my point of view
da cima a fondo from top to bottom
da capo from the beginning, from the top
da lontano/vicino from a distance/close up
lo faccio da me I’ll do it myself
il faidat´e D.I.Y. (do it yourself)
da solo alone
dappertutto everywhere
riconoscere qu dalla voce recognise sb by their voice
sono passato dalla/per la
piazza
I passed by/through the piazza
trasmissione dal vivo (also
in diretta)
live broadcast
25.6 davanti a, prima di, avanti, di fronte a
25.6.1 Basic meanings
These prepositions all express before or in front of. Prima di refers to time,
space, and objects in a series; davanti a and di fronte a refer principally
to space but may also refer to time.
Innanzi, dinanzi, and dinnanzi cover most of the same uses as prima
and davanti but are R2–3. They usually require a, except with certain
expressions of time. Avanti is only used as an adverb in modern Italian
(e.g. andiamo avanti!) except for certain set phrases.
prima delle quattro before four o’clock
prima del tempo/innanzi
tempo (R3)
prematurely
prima di partire before leaving
l’ha fatto prima di me he did it before me (= before I did)
l’ultima traversa prima del
semaforo
the last side road before the traffic
lights
Lei era prima di me nella fila you were ahead of me in the queue
avanti Cristo = a.C. before Christ = BC
prima di tutto/innanzi tutto first of all
`e comparso davanti al
giudice (innanzi al giudice)
he appeared before the judge
mi stava davanti/ stava
davanti a me
he was in front of me
mi stava davanti agli occhi he was before my eyes
davanti alla casa/innanzi alla
casa (R3)
in front of the house; opposite the
house
di fronte alla casa/dirimpetto
alla casa (R3)
opposite the house
di fronte a questa situazione in the face of this situation
331
25 Italian prepositions
25.6.2 Used as adverbs
bisognava pensarci prima we (you, one, etc.) should have
thought of it sooner/earlier
prima o poi sooner or later
le autorit`a erano sedute
davanti
the authorities were sitting at the
front
hai ancora molto tempo
davanti (a te)
you still have lots of time ahead of
you
abita qui di fronte she lives opposite
avevo innanzi/dinanzi le
prove che cercavo (R3)
I had the evidence I was looking for
in front of me
tiriamo innanzi! let’s keep going!
avanti! come in!
25.7 di
25.7.1 Basic meanings
(a) possession, corresponds to English genitive (’s, s’) or of
questa macchina `e di mia sorella
this car is my sister’s
una strada di Napoli
a Naples street
(b) origin (associated with [a]); corresponds to English from
`e di Bologna
she’s from Bologna
note Viene da Bologna may mean the same thing, or may imply
that she is coming from Bologna now or that she has just arrived
from there
(c) material from which something is made (fig associated with [b])
la statua di marmo
the marble statue
un sacchetto di plastica
a plastic bag
(d) cause, when a physical or emotional condition
mor`ı di dolore
ha pianto di gioia
tremare di paura
cf. tremare dalla paura
(section 25.5.1)
soffre di asma
he died of grief
she wept for/with joy
to tremble with fear
he suffers from asthma
332
25.7 di
(e) concern or subject matter
questo libro tratta dell’industrializzazione del dopoguerra
this book deals with post-war industrialization
non so niente di questo
I know nothing about this
Dei delitti e delle pene (treatise by G. L. Beccaria)
On crime and punishment
(f ) introducing a descriptive or specifying phrase
italiano di nascita
parruchiere di professione
una tazza di t´e
(cf. una tazza da t´e, section 25.5.1)
Italian by birth
hairdresser by trade
a cup of tea
(g) linking nouns in apposition
la citt`a di Firenze
quel matto di Giorgio
il mese di maggio
the city of Florence
that madman Giorgio
the month of May
25.7.2 In expressions of description or origin
rosso di capelli red-haired
sano di mente of sound mind
una commedia di Goldoni a play by Goldoni
di is used with adjectives when the following noun refers to a general
substance (or color) rather than a single object, e.g.:
era coperto di polvere
but coperto da una tela
it was covered in/with dust
but covered by/with a cloth
macchiato di sangue spattered in/with blood
la stanza era piena di fumo the room was full of smoke
vestito di nero dressed in black
25.7.3 Expressing time (see also in, section 25.11.1)
di giorno/notte by day/night
di mattina/sera in the morning/evening
di prima mattina early in the morning
di buon mattino/di buon’ora early (usu in the morning)
d’estate/inverno (less commonly
d’autunno/primavera)
in summer/winter (in
autumn/spring)
di questi tempi/giorni these days
cento di questi giorni! many happy returns!
25.7.4 In expressions of price and measurement
il prezzo della macchina `e 5000
euro
the price of the car is 5000 euro
l’aumento `e del dieci per cento the increase is 10%
333
25 Italian prepositions
25.7.5 Idiomatic expressions
esco di casa/scuola presto I leave the house/school early
vado via di qua I’m going away from here
dare del cretino a qu call sb a cretin
dare del tu/Lei/voi a qu use the tu/Lei/voi form of
address with sb, be on first/last
name terms with sb
diamoci del tu! let’s use first names
dire di s`ı o di no to say yes or no
l’ho visto di
spalle/profilo/faccia
I saw him from behind/from the
side (in profile)/from the front
di nascosto covertly
di conseguenza consequently
di seguito in a row, continuously
di tutto cuore willingly, with pleasure
vivere di espedienti to live by one’s wits
di qua/l`a over here/there; this way/that
way
ho speso tanti di quei
soldi (R1)
I spent so much money
ci vuole tanta di quella
pazienza (R1)
you need so much patience
ha preteso tanto di firma sul
documento
he even demanded a signature on
the document
di . . . in . . . is used in certain expressions corresponding to from . . .
to . . .
di anno in anno from year to year
di ora in ora gradually, from one moment to
the next
di tanto di tanto/di volta in
volta
every now and again
(girare) di citt`a in citt`a (to wander) from town to town
di male in peggio from bad to worse
25.7.6 “Grammatical” uses of di
(a) in comparisons (see chapter 17):
sei pi `u furbo di me
you’re smarter than me
(b) in superlative constructions:
il paese pi `u bello del mondo
the most beautiful country in the world
(c) joining an indefinite pronoun and an adjective (always masculine singular):
niente di nuovo/particolare
nothing new/special
un che di misterioso
a certain mysterious quality
334
25.8 dietro, dopo
25.8 dietro, dopo
Dopo expresses after and dietro expresses behind. Both also express the
idea of one thing occurring after another. Indietro is an adverb and
expresses backwards, behind.
dopo dietro
time dopo le sei
after six o’clock
–
place dopo l’incrocio
past the intersection
dietro la porta
behind the door
successive events uno dopo l’altro
one after the other
uno dietro l’altro
one after the other
25.8.1 dietro
dietro a me/te behind me/you (in general)
dietro di me/te right behind me/you
andare dietro a qu to follow sb’s example
dietro richiesta on request
dietro consiglio di on the recommendation of
dietro versamento di (R3) on payment of
dietro le quinte behind the scenes, in the wings
25.8.2 dopo
dopo due mesi di assenza after two months’ absence
l’ho fatto dopo di lui
(R2–3)/dopo lui (R1)
I did it after him
dice una stupidaggine
dopo/dietro l’altra
he says one stupid thing after
another
leggeva libro dopo/dietro libro he read book after book
dopo tutto after all, in conclusion
il dopo Vietnam the post-Vietnam period
dopo Cristo = d.C. Anno Domini = AD
dopo di Lei, prego please, after you
25.8.3 dopo, dietro, and indietro used as adverbs
poco dopo shortly after/afterwards
il giorno dopo the day after, the next day
ci vediamo dopo see you later
guardare indietro to look back
`e rimasto indietro he stayed behind or he got left
behind
avanti e indietro backwards and forwards, to and fro
335
25 Italian prepositions
25.9 fino a, sino a, verso
Verso expresses movement towards and fino a expresses the end-point.
Both can refer to space, time or objects. Sino a is an R3 equivalent
of fino a.
verso Napoli towards Naples
verso casa towards home/homeward(s)
abita verso il centro she lives near the city center
verso l’alto/il basso upwards/downwards
verso le cinque towards/around five o’clock
verso ottobre around October
i suoi sentimenti verso suo
padre/verso di lui
her feelings towards her
father/towards him
fino a qui/fin qui here (= up to here, as far as here)
ti accompagno fino all’angolo I’ll walk with you as far as the
corner
ho dormito fino alle tre I slept until three o’clock
fino alle tre non ho dormito I didn’t sleep until three o’clock
fino alla fine del mondo until the end of the world
fino a quando ti fermi qui? how long are you staying here?
posso spendere fino a cinquanta
euro
I can spend up to 50 euro
schiaccia la pasta fino a ridurla
in una sfoglia
press the pasta until you reduce
it to a sheet
Note that fino/sino can combine with other prepositions to emphasize
their meaning. It is usually abbreviated to fin/sin, e.g.:
`e arrivata gente fin
dall’Australia
people came even from Australia
l’acqua `e arrivata fin dentro la
stanza
the water reached right into the
room
ne ho fin sopra i capelli I’ve had it up to here (fig)
ho aspettato fin troppo I’ve really waited too long
25.10 fuori
25.10.1 Used as preposition
Fuori may be used with di or da, but is often used without either.
fuori Milano, fuori della
Lombardia
outside Milan, outside Lombardy
oggi la signora `e fuori sede she is out of the office/out of
town today
questa frutta `e fuori stagione this fruit is out of season
fuori servizio out of order
336
25.11 in
fuori luogo out of place, uncalled for (fig)
`e fuori dubbio it is beyond doubt
giocare fuori casa to play away
25.10.2 Used as adverb
fa freddo fuori it’s cold outside
l’hanno buttato fuori they threw him out
stasera mangiamo fuori tonight we’re eating out
fuori da casa (mia)! get out of my house!
25.11 in
25.11.1 Basic meanings
(a) location; corresponds to English in
abitano in Sicilia, negli Stati Uniti, nelle Marche
they live in Sicily, in the USA, in the Marche
(b) destination, direction; corresponds to English to or into
vado in Italia, nella Calabria meridionale
I’m going to Italy, southern Calabria
il treno `e entrato nella galleria
the train went into the tunnel
andare in orbita
to go into orbit
(c) a moment within a period of time; corresponds to English in
in giugno; nel 1989; nel passato
in June; in 1989; in the past
25.11.2 Expressing location or movement
nella/dentro la scatola in the box
in centro in/to the centre of
town/downtown
in periferia in/to the suburbs
in via Garibaldi in/to via Garibaldi
in piazza in/at/to the piazza
in carcere/prigione/galera in prison
in casa
cf. a casa
in the house, inside
(at) home
avvocato in Milano (R3) lawyer in Milan
in aereo/macchina/tram/
autobus/pullman/treno/
nave/bicicletta (cf. section
25.3.1)
by plane/car/tram/bus/coach/
train/ship/bicycle
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25 Italian prepositions
in crisi in trouble/in a spot of bother
in biblioteca/libreria/farmacia/
ufficio/banca/chiesa
in/at/to the library/bookshop/
pharmacy/office/bank/church
in tavola on the table (of food)
in Serie A in the first division
25.11.3 Expressing change
andare in fumo to go up in smoke (fig)
andare in pensione to retire (from work)
si `e trasformato in bestia
but `e andato in bestia
he turned into a beast
but he flew into a rage
Maria Rossi in Brambilla Maria Brambilla n´ee Rossi
tradurre dall’italiano in inglese to translate from Italian (in)to
English
convertire in html to convert to html
cambiare dollari in euro to change dollars into euro
25.11.4 Expressing time
in quel momento at that moment
in/nel futuro in the future
in/a quel tempo at that time
in tempo di guerra in time of war
in tutta la mia vita in my (whole) life
in (nell’) inverno/estate/
primavera
in winter/summer/spring
nell’estate dell’88 in the summer of ’88
il giorno in cui the day when/on which
nel mese di maggio in the month of May
nello stesso tempo at the same time
nell’arco di un anno in the course of a year
l’ho fatto in dieci giorni I did it in ten days
lo far `o in dieci giorni I’ll do it in ten days/it will take
me ten days to do it
lo far `o in settimana I’ll do it this week
lo far `o in giornata I’ll do it today
in ritardo/anticipo late/early (for an appointment;
tardi/presto = late/early in
general)
25.11.5 Expressing manner, means, or material
essere in lutto to be in mourning
essere in divisa to be in uniform
essere in piedi/ginocchio to be standing/kneeling
essere in pigiama to be in one’s pyjamas
in maniche di camicia in shirt sleeves
338
25.11 in
un testo (scritto) in
dialetto/latino/codice
a text (written) in dialect/Latin/
code
trasmissione in differita delayed broadcast
trasmissione in diretta (also
dal vivo)
live broadcast
pagare in contanti to pay cash
mangiare in bianco to eat simply (esp during illness)
una notte in bianco a sleepless night
la statua `e in marmo the statue is made from/out of
marble
in focuses attention on the material, while di is more of a simple
description: una statua in marmo = a statue made out of marble, una
statua di marmo = a marble statue
25.11.6 Common idioms and expressions involving in
in breve in short, to put it briefly
in ogni caso in any case
in linea d’aria as the crow flies
in qualche modo in one way or another
in parte in part
in seguito subsequently, next, in the future
in fretta e furia in a great hurry
in poche parole in a few words
in parole povere to put it bluntly
laurea in lettere bachelor of arts
eravamo in dieci/pochi/tanti there were ten/only a few/lots of us
in alto/basso up/down (there)
si `e messo in testa che . . . he has got it into his head that . . .
pi `u in l`a further on
essere in vita/in fin di vita to be alive/to be on the point of
death
in prima pagina on the first page (of a newspaper)
in bocca al lupo! good luck!
in un batter d’occhio in the blink of an eye
25.11.7 In complex prepositional expressions
in base a on the basis of
in cerca di in search of
in cima a on top of
in conformit`a a conforming to
in confronto a in comparison with
nei confronti di with respect to
in fondo a at the bottom/end of
in forza di by force of/because of
in funzione di in terms of
339
25 Italian prepositions
in luogo di in place of
in mezzo a in the middle of
in nome della legge
but nel nome del Padre del
Figlio e dello Spirito Santo
in the name of the law
in the name of the Father, Son,
and Holy Spirit
in occasione di on the occasion of
in onore di in honor of
in presenza di qu in the presence of sb
nei pressi di nearby
in quanto a (qc/fare qc) as regards (sth/doing sth)
in riguardo a/nei riguardi di with respect to
in seguito a following
in vista di in view of
25.12 per
25.12.1 Basic meanings
(a) movement towards or through (both space and time)
parte per Mantova
she is leaving for Mantua
sono passato per Pisa
I passed through/by Pisa
ci siamo rimasti per tre ore
we stayed there for three hours
(b) purpose; corresponds to English for, to, in order to
sono venuto in biblioteca per studiare
I have come to the library to study
25.12.2 Expressing movement
il treno per Lecce `e in
partenza sul primo binario
the train to Lecce is departing from
platform one
sono passato per la piazza I came via the piazza
camminava per la strada she was walking along the street
25.12.3 Expressing time
va via per una settimana he is going away for a week
torno per ferragosto I’ll be back for/by/in time for 15
August
viene per tre giorni he is coming for three days
lo rimandiamo per/di
un mese
we’ll put it off for a month
va per i diciotto anni she is turning eighteen
per il momento for the moment
340
25.12 per
per un attimo/momento/
istante/secondo
for a second/moment/instant
per la prima/l’ultima volta for the first/last time
`e tutto per ora that’s all for now
`e arrivato per primo/ultimo he was first/last to arrive
25.12.4 Expressing purpose
l’ho comprato per te I bought it for you
un box per due macchine a garage for two cars
l’ho fatto per te I did it for you (= for your sake)
firma per sua moglie he signs for (= on behalf of)
his wife
l’hanno cambiata per una
macchina nuova
they exchanged it for a new car
siamo qui per quello that’s what we are here for
non ho abbastanza soldi per
comprarlo
I don’t have enough money to
buy it
25.12.5 Expressing reason or cause
l’hanno arrestato per non aver
pagato le tasse
they arrested him for not paying
his taxes
l’hanno licenziato per
incompetenza
they’ve dismissed him for
incompetence
per colpa tua ho perso il treno it’s your fault I missed the train
per questo, . . . because of this/that’s why
la risposta esiste per ci `o stesso
che esiste la domanda
the answer exists by the very fact
that the question exists
25.12.6 In expressions of quantity
due per volta two at a time
due per due two by two
giorno per giorno day by day
cinquanta per cento 50%
25.12.7 Common idioms and expressions involving per
`e troppo per me it’s too much for me
per me, . . . in my opinion, . . .
per me va bene it’s OK by me
passa per intelligente he is considered intelligent
l’ho scambiata per tua sorella I mistook her for your sister
per quanto mi riguarda/
per quel che mi riguarda/
per ci `o che mi riguarda
(R2–3)
as far as I am concerned
per caso by chance
per fortuna luckily
341
25 Italian prepositions
per disgrazia unfortunately
per certo certainly
per nessun motivo on no account
per iscritto in writing
per cui therefore
per favore/piacere/cortesia please
per mezzo di by means of
per via di because of
25.13 sotto
25.13.1 Basic meanings
Sotto expresses the notion of under, underneath, below. It also appears in a
number of expressions with a more figurative meaning. As a preposition,
sotto is the usual opposite of sopra and su; as an adverb, sotto often, but
not always, alternates with gi `u.
due gradi sotto zero two degrees below zero
sotto la pioggia in the rain
sotto pena di morte on pain of death
essere sotto le armi/la
naia (R1)
to be on military service
sotto processo on trial
sotto ogni punto di vista from all points of view
sotto casa downstairs, down below
sotto Natale/le feste before Christmas/the festive
season
sotto banco under the table, illegal(ly)
finire sotto una macchina to be run over by a car
25.13.2 Idiomatic expressions with parts of the body
sotto braccio arm in arm
prendere qc sotto gamba to take sth (too) lightly
sotto mano nearby, at hand
avere qc sottocchio/sott’occhio to have sth under one’s gaze
25.13.3 Used as an adverb
il bosco si estende sotto per
1800 metri
the forest extends for 1800 meters
(downhill)
un albero con un cartello sotto a tree with a sign under it
mettersi sotto to start working hard/to take the
initiative
mettere sotto qu (con la
macchina)
to run sb over (with a car)
342
25.14 su, sopra
sotto! down to it!/get to work!
sotto sotto secretly/deep down (fig)
25.14 su, sopra
25.14.1 Basic meanings
Sopra and su both express on, over, above, on top of. They are
interchangeable in most expressions, but not all. Su has a wider range of
uses than sopra. The following examples contain one or both prepositions
according to what occurs in current usage.
Su is always articulated with the definite article, sopra never is. In
higher registers, su is often followed by di before a personal pronoun or a
noun beginning with the letter u-, e.g. su di me, su di noi, su di una
collina.
(a) position on, above, over, on top of
c’`e un libro sul/sopra il tavolo
there’s a book on the table
una casa sul/sopra il mare
a house overlooking/by the sea
(b) movement onto, over sth
vado sul/sopra il balcone per un po’ d’aria
I’m going on the balcony for a bit of air
l’aereo ha volato sulla/sopra la citt`a
the plane flew over the city
25.14.2 Expressing location or direction
sulla destra/sinistra/sopra la
destra/sinistra (R3)
on the right/left-hand side
mise un mattone sull’altro/
sopra l’altro
he put one brick on top of the
other
mille metri sopra il livello del
mare
1000 meters above sea level
un grado sopra zero one degree above zero
cento chilometri sopra Napoli 100 km past Naples
la Marcia su Roma the March on Rome (October
1922)
su Canale 5 on Channel 5
25.14.3 In expressions of time or number
su per gi `u approximately
sul presto/tardi early/late
sul far del mattino/della sera in the early morning/evening
343
25 Italian prepositions
sul calar della sera as evening was falling
sulle prime at first
otto su dieci eight out of ten
tre disoccupati su cento
abitanti
three unemployed persons per
hundred inhabitants
ventiquattro ore su
ventiquattro
24 hours a day
Note the difference between su and sopra in these expressions:
costa sui 500 euro it costs around 500 euro
costa sopra i 500 euro it costs more than 500 euro
pesa sui cento chili it weighs around 100 kilograms
pesa sopra i cento chili it weighs more than 100 kilograms
un ragazzo sui vent’anni a young man of around twenty
un ragazzo sopra i vent’anni a young man over twenty
una donna sulla cinquantina a woman of around fifty
una donna sopra la
cinquantina
a woman over fifty
25.14.4 su expressing subject-matter (sopra is less common)
un libro su Pasolini a book on Pasolini
un dibattito sul voto
all’estero
a debate on overseas voting
una mostra sul
Rinascimento
an exhibition on the Renaissance
un giudizio sulla poesia
contemporanea
a judgment on contemporary
poetry
25.14.5 su in idiomatic expressions
su scala internazionale on an international scale
sul serio seriously
credere a qc sulla parola to take sb at their word
mettere una questione sul
tappeto
to put the matter on the table/on
the agenda
sul piede di guerra on a war footing
un fallo su Del Piero a foul on Del Piero
l’articolo `e apparso sul
Corriere della Sera
the article appeared in the Corriere
della Sera
la camera dava/guardava sul
cortile
the bedroom gave onto/looked out
onto the courtyard
un vestito su misura a tailor-made suit/outfit
su due piedi immediately, without prior warning
si `e tenuto sulle generali he kept to generalities
giurare sulla Bibbia to swear on the Bible
imposta sul reddito income tax
imposta sul valore aggiunto
(IVA)
Value-Added Tax (UK)/Goods and
Services Tax (Aus)
344
25.15 tra, fra
si contano sulla punta
delle dita
you can count them on the
fingers of one hand
oggi `e sulle spine she is very anxious/nervy today
sulla punta della lingua on the tip of one’s tongue
lui sta sulle sue he keeps himself to himself
su Internet on the Internet
sul Web on the (World Wide) Web
25.14.6 su and sopra used as adverbs
su! come on!
su con la vita! look up! / chin up!
su le mani! hands up!
un foglio di carta con su/sopra
scritto “Aiuto”
a sheet of paper with “Help”
written on it
`e una famiglia molto su (R1–2) they are a high-placed family/ in
high society
oggi `e su di giri he’s very excited/in a good mood
today
le azioni sono andate su my shares have gone up
vorrebbe mettere su famiglia he would like to marry
da dieci euro in su from 10 euro up
dalla cintola in su (R3-from
Dante)
from the waist up
di cui sopra (R3) above, above-mentioned
come sopra, vedi sopra as above, see above
mettiamoci una pietra sopra let’s forget it
pensarci su/sopra to think about it
voglio dormirci sopra I want to sleep on it (fig)
25.15 tra, fra
These two prepositions are identical in meaning. Tra is somewhat more
commonly used than fra. The only clear reason to prefer one over the
other is to avoid unpleasant sound combinations, e.g.:
fra tre ore is preferred to tra tre ore
tra fratelli is preferred to fra fratelli
25.15.1 Basic meanings
(a) between (both space and time)
tra il ristorante e il negozio
between the restaurant and the shop
tra le cinque e le sei
between five and six (o’clock)
345
25 Italian prepositions
(b) among
si muoveva tra la folla parlando con tutti
he moved among the crowd speaking to everyone
25.15.2 Expressing time or distance
fra breve/tra poco/tra non
molto
soon
tra due chilometri c’`e un
benzinaio
there’s a petrol pump in two km
arriver`a fra venti minuti she’ll be here in twenty minutes
25.15.3 Common idioms and expressions involving tra, fra
tra l’altro moreover, furthermore
detto tra noi between us
una discussione tra amici a discussion among friends
sei il migliore tra i miei amici you’re the best of my friends
tra tutti c’era una ventina di
persone
in all there were about twenty
people
tra amici e parenti ci saranno
state cento persone
there must have been 100 people
including friends and relatives
tra lavoro e la famiglia non ho
un momento libero
with work and the family I don’t
have a free moment
parlava fra s´e (e s´e) (R2–3) he was talking to himself
distinguere tra caso e caso to distinguish between one case
and another
346
26 English prepositions
This section lists common English prepositions and some Italian
equivalents. The focus is on Italian expressions that are different from the
usual equivalent of each English expression.
26.1 about
26.1.1 In the sense of “concerning”
a book about neorealism un libro sul neorealismo
he doesn’t understand anything
about the issue
non capisce niente della
questione
what’s this about? di che cosa si tratta?
26.1.2 In the sense of “approximately”
about midday verso mezzogiorno
about fifty people circa cinquanta persone/una
cinquantina di persone/
cinquanta persone circa (R3)
he is about twenty lui ha circa vent’anni/ha una
ventina d’anni/`e sui venti
anni/`e sulla ventina
With multiples of ten up to 90, one can say: `e sulla ventina/trentina/
quarantina/cinquantina/sessantina/settantina/ottantina/
novantina
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
347
26 English prepositions
26.2 above
above the limit oltre il limite
above the village sul/sopra il paese
the Arno above Florence l’Arno sopra/a monte di Firenze
above average sopra la media/al di sopra della
media
26.3 according to
according to John/in my
opinion
secondo Giovanni/me
according to the law secondo la legge
26.4 across
to go across the bridge attraversare il ponte
she lives across the piazza abita dall’altra parte della piazza
the house across the river la casa oltre/dall’altra parte del
fiume
he ran across the field
(cf. chapter 21)
ha attraversato il campo
correndo/di corsa
26.5 along
Usually lungo or per; rasente stresses proximity.
he is walking along the
road/river/coast
cammina lungo la strada/il
fiume/la costa
I saw them along the road li ho visti per la strada
along the wall lungo il muro/rasente il muro
he ran along the edge of the
precipice
correva rasente l’orlo del
precipizio
along with insieme a/con
26.6 among
among the Italians presso gli italiani
among friends tra amici
348
26.8 at
26.7 as
as a child da bambino
she was successful as a writer ebbe successo come scrittrice
dressed as a priest vestito da prete
as far as the village fino al paese
as far as I know che sappia io
as for him quanto a lui
as to the financial aspects quanto ai risvolti finanziari
as soon as possible appena possibile/quanto prima
as well as possible il meglio possible
26.8 at
26.8.1 Expressing place
at home a casa
at my/his/our place a casa mia/sua/nostra or da
me/lui/noi
at the doctor’s dal dottore
at school a scuola
at church in chiesa
at the bank/office in banca/ufficio
at the theater a teatro
at University all’Universit`a
at the library in biblioteca
at work al lavoro
at sea in/sul mare
There has been an accident at sea.
C’`e stata una disgrazia sul mare/in alto mare.
There he is, in the sea.
Eccolo, nel mare.
26.8.2 Expressing time
at midnight a mezzanotte
at ten o’clock alle dieci
at 7.20 pm alle 7,20 / alle 19,20 = alle sette e
venti / alle diciannove e venti
at about seven alle sette circa/verso le sette
at this time a quest’ora
at the same time allo/nello stesso tempo/alla stessa
ora
at day/night di giorno/notte
349
26 English prepositions
at the age of twenty all’et`a di vent’anni
at present in questo momento/attualmente
at the weekend(s) il weekend/il fine settimana
26.8.3 In other expressions
at best nella migliore delle ipotesi
at least almeno/per lo meno
at once subito
at most al massimo
at peace in pace
at the top in cima/in alto
at first sight a prima vista
at bottom in fondo
at the point of death in fin di vita
at 100 miles an hour a (una velocit`a di) 160 km
all’ora/a 160 km l’ora
at hand a portata di mano
at any rate ad/in ogni modo/comunque
at stake in gioco
one thing at a time una cosa per volta
26.9 because of
because of his age per la sua et`a/a causa della sua et`a
(R2–3)
26.10 before
26.10.1 Expressing place
he stood before the house stava davanti alla casa
to have sth before one’s eyes avere qc sotto gli occhi
the problem before us il problema che ci sta davanti/che
abbiamo di fronte
a crime before God and man un delitto innanzi a Dio e agli
uomini
26.10.2 Expressing time
before me prima di me
she’ll come before six verr`a prima delle sei
before long fra non molto/fra poco
the day before yesterday l’altro ieri/ier(i) l’altro/avant’ieri
(R3)
Before Christ (BC) avanti Cristo (a.C.)
350
26.14 by
26.10.3 Expressing order of importance etc.
he puts money before
everything
mette i soldi davanti a tutto
26.11 below
below zero sotto zero
the Tiber below Rome il Tevere sotto/a valle di Roma
below average sotto la media/al di sotto della
media
26.12 beneath
to disappear beneath the waves sparire sotto le onde
beneath contempt vergognoso, ignobile
that action is beneath him quell’atto `e indegno di lui
26.13 beyond
twenty kilometers beyond
Bologna
venti km oltre/dopo Bologna
beyond the horizon oltre l’orizzonte/al di l`a
dell’orizzonte
beyond human understanding al di l`a della comprensione
umana
beyond my wildest dreams al di l`a dei miei sogni pi `u folli
he’s living beyond his means vive al di sopra dei suoi mezzi
it’s beyond me non lo capisco/non ci arrivo
(R1–2)
26.14 by
26.14.1 Expressing place
by my side al mio fianco/a fianco a me
she sat down by her father
(i.e. near)
si `e seduta vicino a suo padre
she sat down by her father
(i.e. alongside)
si `e seduta accanto a suo padre
351
26 English prepositions
he took me by the hand mi ha preso per mano
he led my by the hand mi ha portato per mano
we went by his house siamo passati per casa sua
26.14.2 Expressing time
by nine o’clock entro/per (R1–2) le nove
entro has more the meaning of
“not later than.” This can be
made explicit:
entro e non oltre le nove no
later than nine o’clock
by Friday per/entro venerd`ı
by now ormai/a questo punto
26.14.3 Expressing measure
taller by thirty centimeters pi `u alto di trenta cm
more interesting by far di gran lunga pi `u interessante
I am paid by the hour/week sono pagato a ore/a settimana
to hire by the day noleggiare al giorno
he sells wine by the litre vende il vino al litro
eggs are sold by the dozen le uova si vendono a dozzine
she missed the target by a
meter
ha mancato il bersaglio di un
metro
15 cm by 10 cm 15 cm per 10 cm
26.14.4 Expressing means
to travel by train/bus/car/plane viaggiare in treno/autobus/
macchina/ aereo or col
treno/con l’autobus/con la
macchina/con l’aereo
to travel by bike viaggiare in bicicletta
may I pay by cheque? posso pagare con un assegno?
to contact sb by phone/email contattare qu per telefono/
email/posta elettronica
by air mail per via aerea
by means of per mezzo di
by no means in nessun modo/neanche per
sogno (R1–2)
by all means certamente, senz’altro
352
26.16 during
26.14.5 Expressing cause or agent
For the use of by in passive constructions, see also section 23.4.
by accident/mistake per caso/sbaglio
a play by Pirandello una commedia di Pirandello
made by hand fatto a mano
the battery was invented
by Alessandro Volta
la pila fu inventata da Alessandro Volta
the invention of the
battery by Alessandro
Volta
l’invenzione della pila da parte di
Alessandro Volta also ad opera di
(R3)
26.14.6 In other expressions
one by one uno alla volta
I know her by sight la conosco di vista
side by side fianco a fianco
I learned the whole
poem by heart
ho imparato a memoria l’intera poesia
by ear a orecchio
by my watch secondo il mio orologio
he swore by all that is
holy
giur `o su tutto ci `o che vi `e di pi`u sacro
(R2–3)
by way of example a mo’ di esempio
by dint of hard work a forza di fatica
by Jove! per Giove/per Bacco!
26.15 down
we walked down the
street
camminavamo lungo/per la strada
we walked down the
stairs (cf. chapter 21)
camminavamo gi `u per le scale/
scendevamo le scale a piedi
tears ran down his
cheeks
le lacrime gli scendevano lungo
le guance
down the centuries lungo/attraverso i secoli
downtown in centro
26.16 during
during the day durante il giorno
during one’s lifetime per tutta la vita/vita natural durante
(R3)
353
26 English prepositions
26.17 except (for)
every day except Sunday tutti i giorni eccetto domenica
everyone except for him tutti tranne lui/eccetto lui/salvo lui
(R3)
the flat is finished except
for the kitchen
a parte la cucina, l’appartamento `e
pronto
26.18 for
26.18.1 Expressing benefit
a present for her husband un regalo per suo marito
a reward for sth un premio per qc
for your benefit a tuo beneficio
26.18.2 Expressing purpose
for pleasure per (puro) divertimento
what’s for dinner? che cosa c’`e per cena?
they’re coming to my
house for dinner
vengono a cena da me
cf. guess who’s coming to
dinner
indovina chi viene a cena
for monetary gain a scopo di lucro (R3)
what’s it for? a che cosa serve?
26.18.3 Expressing cause
to shout for joy gridare dalla/di gioia
he was jailed for murder fu imprigionato per omicidio
for this reason per questo motivo
26.18.4 Expressing time
I have been living in
Rome for three years
vivo a Roma da tre anni /
sono/`e (R1) tre anni che vivo a
Roma /
`e da tre anni che vivo a Roma
we had been living in
Rome for five years
vivevamo a Roma da cinque anni /
erano/era (R1) cinque anni che
vivevamo a Roma /
era da cinque anni che vivevamo a
Roma
354
26.19 from
they lived in Rome for
two years when they
were just married
hanno vissuto (sono vissuti) a Roma
per due anni appena sposati
she will be in Venice for
two weeks
sar`a a Venezia per due settimane
they are here for two days sono qui per due giorni
he was there for a week =
he spent a week there
c’`e stato l`ı per una settimana/ci ha
passato una settimana
she was there for a week =
she was going to stay for
a week
era l`ı per una settimana / si fermava
l`ı per una settimana / si sarebbe
fermata l`ı per una settimana
he won’t be back for a
month
non ritorna per un mese/ritorna fra
un mese
I’ll do it for Monday lo faccio per luned`ı
26.18.5 Expressing place
at Terontola you change
for Perugia
a Terontola si cambia per Perugia
I’m leaving for Calabria parto per la Calabria
26.18.6 In other expressions
for example per/ad esempio
for sale in vendita
as for me per me
for all I know per quanto ne sappia io/ne so (R1)
26.19 from
26.19.1 Expressing place
she comes from Australia
(i.e. that is her country
of origin)
lei `e dell’Australia/australiana
she comes from Australia
(i.e. she is traveling or
has just arrived from
there)
lei viene dall’Australia
where are you from? di dove sei?
the train from Lecce
(to Milan)
il treno da Lecce (a Milano)
from top to bottom da cima a fondo
from beginning to end dall’inizio alla fine
from the beginning da capo
from head to foot dalla testa ai piedi
tell him from me that . . . digli da parte mia che . . .
355
26 English prepositions
26.19.2 Expressing time
from dawn to dusk dall’alba al tramonto
from today on da oggi in poi
from now on da/d’ora in poi
from 1 January (a partire) dal 1 gennaio
from day to day di giorno in giorno
from time to time di quando in quando/di tanto in
tanto
26.19.3 In other expressions
he is suffering from AIDS `e malato di AIDS
from what I’ve heard da quello che ho sentito io
from my point of view dal mio punto di vista
from the psychological point of
view
sotto il profilo psicologico
26.20 in
26.20.1 Expressing place
in our country/region/city da noi
in the Alps sulle/in mezzo alle Alpi
in Turin a Torino but in Torino (R3) =
within Turin
in Italy
but in southern (etc.) Italy
in Italia
nell’Italia meridionale (ecc)
in + names of Italian regioni
f sing names in Lombardia
m sing names nel Lazio, nel Veneto, nel Molise
but it is increasingly common to
use in without the article, esp in
Piemonte, in Abruzzo, in
Veneto, in Trentino, in Friuli
all pl names nelle Marche, negli Abruzzi
in town in citt`a/paese
in the country/mountains in campagna/montagna
in the sky nel/in cielo
in heaven in cielo
in the piazza in piazza
wounded in the arm ferito al braccio
blind in one eye cieco da un occhio
in the direction of the harbour verso il/in direzione del porto
in the neighborhood of nei pressi di/nei paraggi di (R3)
in the air (lit and fig) in aria (lit), nell’aria (fig)
356
26.20 in
in space nello spazio
in a tent in tenda
in the newspaper sul giornale
in the saddle (of horse and
bike)
in sella
to sit in an armchair essere seduto in poltrona
to have sth in one’s mouth avere qc in bocca
in the sun al sole
in the shade/shadow all’ombra
in the rain sotto la pioggia
in the snow sotto la neve (when it is
falling)/nella neve (on the
ground)
in the kitchen/bedroom in/nella cucina/camera
in the bathroom/living room in/nel bagno/salotto
in the garden in/nel giardino
in bed a letto
in place of al posto di
in your place (lit and fig) al tuo posto
to save in memory salvare in memoria
26.20.2 Expressing time
in the morning al mattino/la mattina/di mattina
in the afternoon il/nel/di pomeriggio
it is better to sleep in the
afternoon
`e meglio dormire di pomeriggio
yesterday I slept in the
afternoon
ieri ho dormito nel pomeriggio
in the evening la/di sera
in the early afternoon nel primo pomeriggio
in August in agosto
in mid August a met`a agosto
in (the) spring/ summer/
autumn/ winter
d’/di or in primavera/estate/
autunno/inverno
di implies some usual activity; in
is used for a specific time reference
in the winter of 1944 nell’inverno del 1944
in 1948 nel 1948
in the twenty-first century nel 21◦ secolo
in our time ai nostri giorni/tempi
in the time of the Caesars ai tempi dei Cesari
I will do it in ten days (i.e. in
ten days from now)
lo far `o fra dieci giorni
I will do it in ten days (i.e. it
will take me ten days)
lo far `o in/entro dieci giorni
357
26 English prepositions
I did it in ten days (i.e. it took
me ten days)
l’ho fatto in dieci giorni
in this weather con questo tempo
in the long run a lungo andare
in the short/mid/long term a breve/medio/lungo termine
26.20.3 In other expressions
the best in the world il migliore del mondo
in a happy/sad voice con voce felice/triste
in a whisper sotto voce/a voce bassa
in a strange way in modo strano
(in) my way a modo mio
in the light of these revelations alla luce di queste rivelazioni
in that case in questo caso
in peace/silence in pace/silenzio
to be in mourning essere in lutto
in writing per iscritto
in my opinion secondo me/a mio parere/a
parer mio (R3)
in the opinion of the judges secondo i giudici
dressed in white/black/red vestito di bianco/nero/rosso
dressed in mourning vestito a lutto
to pay in cash or in kind pagare in contanti o in natura
in power al potere
in the finals/semifinals in finale/semifinale
in the present situation allo stato attuale delle cose
in parentheses tra parentesi
four in number quattro di numero
in all sincerity con tutta sincerit`a
26.21 inside
inside the room dentro la/nella stanza
inside two months nel giro di due mesi/entro due
mesi
26.22 instead of
instead of flowers invece/al posto dei fiori
he acted instead of his son ha fatto le veci di suo figlio (R3)
358
26.26 on
26.23 into
to fall into sb’s hands cadere nelle/tra le mani di qu
to translate into Spanish tradurre in spagnolo
to drive into a tree andare (con la macchina) contro
un albero
26.24 of
some of them alcuni di loro
all of them tutti (loro)
the five of us noi cinque
a friend of mine un mio amico
the city of Milan la citt`a di Milano
a house (made) of wood una casa di legno
of late ultimamente
of old anticamente
of his own accord di sua spontanea volont`a
26.25 off
to get off the train/tram/
bus/plane
scendere dal treno/tram/
dall’autobus/l’aereo
she fell off a ladder `e caduta da una scala
off shore al largo
off Naples al largo di Napoli
off the coast of Calabria al largo della Calabria
offside (in) fuorigioco
26.26 on
26.26.1 Expressing place
the book is on the table il libro `e sul/sopra il tavolo
the picture is hanging on the
wall
il quadro `e appeso al muro/alla
parete
the cat is sitting on the wall il gatto `e seduto sul muro
on the ceiling sul soffitto
on the stage (of a play etc.) sul palcoscenico/sulla scena
on the stage (of a performer) in scena
to travel on the river (i.e. by
boat)
viaggiare sul fiume
359
26 English prepositions
to have a picnic on the
river (i.e. beside it)
fare un picnic vicino al fiume
a house on the river una casa sul fiume
the room looks on to the
courtyard
la stanza d`a sul cortile
on top of in cima di
on the left/right a sinistra/destra
on board a bordo (di)
on the train sul treno
to travel on the train/on a
bike
viaggiare in treno/bicicletta
on that train/bike (i.e. on
a particular one)
su quel treno/quella bicicletta
on the second floor al secondo piano
on the stairs sulle scale/per le scale
on the ground per terra/a terra
on the footpath/pavement sul marciapiede
on this side da questa parte
on the other side dall’altra parte
on all sides da tutte le parti
on page 50 a pagina 50
on the front page (of a
newspaper)
in prima pagina
on his face in faccia
on the mouth sulla bocca
26.26.2 Expressing time
on 25 April il 25 aprile
on Sunday domenica
on Sundays la domenica
on a cold winter’s day in un freddo giorno d’inverno
on weekdays nei giorni feriali/lavorativi
on (GB: at) the
weekend(s)
il weekend/il fine settimana
on this important occasion in questa importante occasione
on his arrival al suo arrivo
(payment) on delivery (pagamento) alla consegna
26.26.3 In other expressions
on the telephone al telefono
on radio/television
but the cat is sitting on
the television (set)
alla radio/televisione
but il gatto `e seduto sul
televisore
on Channel 5 su Canale 5
360
26.28 outside
on air in onda
the song has come out on cd la canzone `e uscita su cd
on the Internet su Internet
on the Web sul Web [wεb]
we arrived on foot/horseback siamo arrivati a piedi/cavallo
to go on a pilgrimage andare in pellegrinaggio
they are on the way (of people) sono in viaggio/per strada
they are on the way (of things) stanno arrivando
on average in media
on one condition a una condizione
to go on tour andare in tourn´ee
to be on leave essere in congedo/permesso/
ferie
tell him on my behalf digli da parte mia
he’s on our side lui `e dalla nostra parte
shares quoted on the (Milan)
Stock Exchange
azioni quotate in borsa/sulla
piazza (di Milano)
on the agenda all’ordine del giorno
congratulations on mi congratulo (con te) per
26.27 out of
she went out of the room `e uscita dalla stanza
he is out of town `e fuori citt`a/sede
she is out of the office `e fuori ufficio/sede
eight out of ten otto su dieci
out of action fuori servizio
out of work senza lavoro, disoccupato
out of breath senza fiato, trafelato (R2–3)
out of danger fuori pericolo
out of the way fuori mano, lontano
out of the way! levati dai piedi! via!
out of meaning through = per
out of kindness/love/envy per gentilezza/amore/invidia
out of meaning without =
senza
out of petrol/sugar senza benzina/zucchero
26.28 outside
the house is outside Rome la casa `e fuori Roma
the campsite is outside Lazio il campeggio `e fuori del Lazio
outside office hours al di fuori dell’orario d’ufficio
361
26 English prepositions
26.29 over
clouds hung over the city le nuvole incombevano sulla/sopra
la citt`a
he jumped over the table ha saltato/scavalcato la tavola
over the sea al di l`a del mare/oltremare
children over three years old bambini sopra i tre anni/superiori
ai tre anni (R3)
over a year ago pi `u di un anno fa
over dinner a cena/a tavola
over the years negli anni
26.30 past
just past the shop poco dopo il negozio
he ran past the shop ha passato il negozio correndo
she is past seventy ha pi `u di settant’anni
five past two le due e cinque
26.31 round
we sat round the table ci siamo seduti intorno alla tavola
we walked round the park
(round the perimeter)
abbiamo fatto il giro del parco
we walked round the park
(in the park)
abbiamo fatto un giro nel parco
he travelled round Italy ha viaggiato in Italia/ha girato
l’Italia
round the corner dietro l’angolo
26.32 through
she walked through the
wood/forest/countryside
ha attraversato il bosco/la
foresta/la campagna a piedi
to look through a window guardare da una finestra
canceled through illness cancellato per malattia
I went through a red light sono passato col rosso
all through her life (per) tutta la vita
362
26.34 towards
26.33 to
26.33.1 Expressing direction
to go to school andare a scuola
(both in the sense of “to attend school” and “to be travelling to the
school building”)
The following expressions have the same two types of meaning:
to go to church andare in chiesa
to go to University andare all’Universit`a
to go to the bank andare in banca
to go to work andare al lavoro
to go to town andare in citt`a/paese/centro
to go to the office andare in ufficio
to go to the doctor(’s) andare dal dottore
to go to bed andare a letto/coricarsi (R3)
to go to Heaven andare in Paradiso/salire in cielo
to go to Hell andare all’Inferno
to go to the moon/Mars andare sulla luna/su Marte
to go to Brindisi andare a Brindisi
to go to Italy andare in Italia
For the Italian regions, the same rules apply as for the English preposition
in. Thus:
andare in Toscana, nelle Marche, in Veneto, in Piemonte,
nel/in Lazio
to fall to the ground cadere in/per terra
the bird fell to the ground l’uccello `e caduto per/a terra
he fainted and fell to the
ground
`e svenuto ed `e caduto per/a terra
twenty to six le sei meno venti/venti alle sei (R1)
26.33.2 In other expressions
to my surprise/delight con mia sorpresa/gioia
to (the best of) my
knowledge
per quel che ne so io/che sappia io
married to sb sposato con qu
I told him to his face gliel’ho detto in faccia
to my mind a mio parere
26.34 towards
your kindness towards me la tua gentilezza con me
your duty towards your
parents
il tuo dovere verso i (tuoi)
genitori
363
26 English prepositions
26.35 under
under the table sotto il tavolo
children under three years old bambini sotto i tre anni (R1–2)/
inferiori ai tre anni (R3)
under an hour meno di un’ora
under age minorenne
under consideration in esame
born under the sign of Pisces nato sotto il segno dei Pesci
26.36 until, till
until now fino ad ora/finora
until then fino ad allora
until 2002 fino al 2002
until the end of the month fino alla fine del mese
until seven o’clock fino alle sette
until after his death fino a dopo la sua morte
I waited until seven o’clock ho aspettato fino alle sette
he won’t know until Saturday non lo sapr`a prima di sabato/lo
sapr`a solo sabato
26.37 up
we climbed up the hill siamo saliti sulla collina
he walked up the street ha camminato lungo la strada
26.38 with
come with me vieni con me
I am angry with you sono arrabbiato con te
with all my heart con tutto il cuore
he lives with his mother vive con sua madre
he lives with his girlfriend convive con la (sua) ragazza
she wept with joy pianse di gioia/per la (grande)
gioia
covered with dust coperto di polvere
together with insieme con (R2–3)/a (R1–2)
364
27 Prepositional constructions with
verbs and adjectives
In sections 27.1 to 27.6, each verb is listed only once, under the
preposition with which it is most commonly used. The existence of
alternative usages is signaled by, e.g., (also di), but the verb is not listed
under the alternative prepositions. The index may be consulted to locate
verbs if necessary. Verbs which permit different constructions that have
different meanings are listed in section 27.7.
27.1 Verbs with no preposition before an infinitive
27.1.1 Infinitive as subject of the verb
In the sentence Occorre scrivere, the infinitive scrivere is the subject of
occorre, just as in the sentence Occorre una lettera, the noun una
lettera is the subject of the verb. When an infinitive is the subject of a
verb, there is usually no intervening preposition. A number of these verbs
are sometimes used with di, but this usage should not be imitated by the
student.
affascinare (R2–3) to fascinate
appassionare (R2–3) to please greatly
bastare a qu to be enough
bisognare a qu to be necessary
convenere a qu
le conviene aspettare
to be opportune
she should wait
costare a qu to cost
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
365
27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives
dare fastidio a qu
gli d`a fastidio sentire discorsi
retorici
to give annoyance
it annoys him to hear rhetorical
speeches
dispiacare a qu
le dispiace attendere fuori?
to give displeasure
do you mind waiting outside?
entusiasmare to give enthusiasm
essere + noun
e.g. `e un peccato/la cosa
pi `u facile del mondo
to be (a pity/the easiest thing
in the world, etc.)
essere + adj
`e necessario/possibile/vietato
to be (necessary/possible/
forbidden, etc.)
importare a qu
esp non importa
to be of importance
it isn’t important
infastidire (R2–3) to give annoyance
interessare a qu to interest
occorrere a qu to be necessary
piacere a qu to give pleasure
rallegrare qu (R3) to give joy
rendere + adj a qu
la tua lettera (le) rende
impossibile aiutarti
to make it impossible for sb to
do sth
your letter makes it impossible
(for her) to help you
riuscire only in the R2–3
construction riuscire a + qu +
adj , e.g.:
gli riesce difficile fidarsi di lei it is difficult for him to trust
her
rincrescere a qu (R2–3)
le rincresce non poterti
aiutare
to give sorrow
she is sorry she can’t help
ripugnare (R3) to be repugnant
seccare a qu
gli secca aspettare i ritardatari
to give annoyance
it annoys him to wait for
late-comers
servire a qu to be of use
spettare a qu
le spetta badare al bambino
to be the duty of
it is up to her to look after the
baby
toccare a qu
gli tocca pagare per tutti
a chi tocca (pagare)?
to fall to
he has to pay for everyone
whose turn is it (to pay)?
valere la pena (also di)
val la pena (di) chiedere il
prezzo
to be worthwhile
it is worth asking the price
venire + adj a qu
le viene spontaneo pensare
a lui al tramonto
she finds herself thinking of
him at sunset
366
27.1 Verbs with no preposition before an infinitive
27.1.2 Infinitive as object of the verb
When the infinitive has the same function as a direct object, there is no
preposition. Compare:
Preferisco camminare.
I prefer to walk.
Preferisco una passeggiata.
I prefer a stroll.
A number of these verbs used to take di in older forms of Italian but this is
restricted to higher registers today and often sounds old-fashioned.
adorare (R2–3) to adore doing sth
amare (R2–3) to love to do sth
bramare (R3) to long to do sth
desiderare to desire to do sth
dovere to have to do sth
gradire (R2–3) to be pleased to
osare (R2–3) to dare to do sth
potere to be able to do sth
preferire to prefer to do sth
sapere to know how to do sth
sembrare
Matteo sembra dormire
Tommaso sembra aver
capito
to seem
Matteo seems to be sleeping
Tommaso seems to have
understood
essere solito (R3) to be accustomed to doing sth
usare (R3)
uso andare a letto presto
oggi usa uscire in
compagnia
to be accustomed to doing sth
I usually go to bed early
today one goes out in company
volere to want to do sth
27.1.3 Verbs of perception
sento (qu) cantare I hear (sb) singing
sento Tommaso cantare
or sento cantare Tommaso
or sento Tommaso a cantare
(R1, South)
I hear Tommaso singing
sento cantare la canzone da/a
Tommaso
la sento cantare da/a lui
gli sento cantare la canzone
gliela sento cantare
I hear Tommaso sing the song or
I hear the sung being sung by/to
Tommaso
I hear him singing it
I hear him singing the song
I hear him singing it
sento Tommaso cantare la
canzone
lo sento cantarla
I hear Tommaso singing the song
I hear him singing it
mi fa piacere sentirgliela
cantare
I am pleased to hear him sing it
367
27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives
vedo andare via Giuseppe I see Giuseppe go away
vedo abbattere gli alberi I see the trees (being) felled
vedo Giuseppe pentirsi delle
sue parole
I see Giuseppe regret his words
27.1.4 Causative construction
faccio cantare Tommaso
lo faccio cantare
I make Tommaso sing
I make him sing
faccio cantare la canzone
la faccio cantare
I have the song sung
I have it sung
faccio cantare la canzone
da/a Tommaso
la faccio cantare da/a lui
gliela faccio cantare
I make Tommaso sing the song
or I get the song sung by
Tommaso
I get it sung by him
I make him sing it
faccio pentire Tommaso delle
sue parole
I make Tommaso regret his words
27.2 di before an infinitive
With di, the infinitive is in the present if the action occurs at the same
time or in the future with respect to the main verb; it is in the past if the
action occurred prior to the main verb. (See also “Sequence of tenses,”
chapter 29). E.g.:
Dice di essere d’accordo.
She says she agrees.
Dice di essere stata d’accordo fin dall’inizio.
She says she has agreed from the start.
27.2.1 The subject of certain “impersonal” verbs (cf. section 4.4)
These verbs often take a che clause + subjunctive, which is the subject of
the verb. They may also take an infinitive clause with di when the logical
subject of the two verbs is the same (see section 24.10 for this use with
impersonal subjects), e.g.:
Gli sembra di aver capito (= Sembra che lui abbia capito)
It seems to him to have understood, i.e. He thinks he has understood.
(a) Verbs of seeming
parere
risultare
sembrare
to appear
to turn out
to seem
(b) Verbs of happening
accadere
capitare
succedere
to occur
to happen by chance
to happen
368
27.2 di before an infinitive
essere dato di (R3):
non mi fu dato di incontrarla I didn’t happen to meet her
venire fatto di (R3):
mi venne fatto di trovare il
documento cruciale
I happened to find the crucial
letter
(c) Certain verbs used idiomatically
andare (R1–2) to feel like doing sth
non gli va di uscire stasera he doesn’t feel like going out
tonight
passare per la mente/testa
(R1–2)
to enter one’s head
non le `e passato per la mente
di chiedere scusa
it didn’t enter her head to
apologize
27.2.2 Verbs of saying, promising, agreeing
These verbs take di + infinitive when the subjects of the two verbs are the
same, and a che clause when they are different. Many of these verbs may
also take a che clause with the same subjects to add weight to what is said,
e.g.:
Gli ho promesso di farlo or Gli ho promesso che lo avrei fatto.
I promised him I would do it.
Gli ho promesso che il mio amico l’avrebbe fatto.
I promised him my friend would do it.
accennare di to hint that
accettare di to accept to (do sth)
acconsentire di to agree to (do sth)
affermare di to state that
aggiungere di to add that
ammettere di to admit that
annunciare di to announce that
asserire di to assert that
confessare di to confess that
consentire di (also a) to agree to (do sth)
decidere di to decide to (do sth)
dichiarare di to declare that
dire di to say that
esclamare di to exclaim that
giurare di to swear that
lagnarsi di to complain that
lamentarsi di to complain that
meritare di to deserve to (do sth)
negare di to deny that
promettere di to promise to (do sth)
raccontare di to relate that
rischiare di to risk (doing sth)
rispondere di to reply that
369
27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives
scrivere di to write that
stabilire di to decide to (do sth)
svelare di (R2–3) to reveal that
27.2.3 Verbs of mental states
(a) Verbs of remembering and forgetting
dimenticar(si) di to forget to (do sth)
scordarsi di to forget to (do sth)
ricordar(si) di to remember to (do sth)
(b) Verbs of noticing and realizing
accorgersi di to notice that
realizzare di (R1–2) to realize that
rendersi conto di to realize that
(c) Verbs of knowing, pretending
far finta di to pretend that
ignorare di (R2–3) not to know that
sapere di to know that
scoprire di to discover that
27.2.4 Verbs of feeling, opinion, or will
(a) Verbs of believing, doubting, hoping, suspecting
aspettarsi di to expect to (do sth)
contare di to count on (doing sth)
credere di to believe that
dubitare di to doubt that
immaginare di to imagine that
pensare di to think that/to think about
(doing sth)
ritenere di to claim that
sognare di to dream of (doing sth)
sospettare di to suspect that
sperare di to hope to (do sth)
(b) Verbs of feeling, emotion
accontentarsi di to be happy with (doing sth)
aver paura di to be afraid to (do sth)
aver piacere di to be pleased to (do sth)
aver vergogna di to be ashamed to (do sth)
offendersi di to be offended that
pentirsi di to regret (doing sth)
non poterne pi `u di (R1–2) not to be able to (do sth) any more
preoccuparsi di to take care to (do sth)
rallegrarsi di (R2–3) to take pleasure in (doing sth)
rammaricarsi di to regret (doing sth)
stupirsi di to be amazed that
temere di to be afraid that
vergognarsi di to be ashamed to (do sth)
370
27.2 di before an infinitive
(c) Verbs of wanting, planning, trying
ardire di (R3) to dare to (do sth)
aspettare di to wait to (do sth)
augurarsi di to hope that
cercare di to try to (do sth)
godere di (also a, nel) to enjoy (doing sth)
mettersi in testa di (R1–2) to get it into one’s head to
(do sth)
minacciare di to threaten to (do sth)
parlare di to talk about (doing sth in the
future)
progettare di to plan on (doing sth)
proporre di to propose (doing sth)
riservarsi di (R3) to reserve the right to (do sth)
risolvere di (R3) to resolve to (do sth)
scegliere di to choose to (do sth)
sentirsela di to feel like (doing sth)
tentare di to try to (do sth)
vedere di to see to it that (sth happens)
27.2.5 Other verbs
(a) Verbs of ceasing
cessare di to cease (doing sth)
finire di to finish (doing sth)
(non) mancare di not to fail to (do sth)
smettere di to stop or give up (doing sth)
terminare di to stop (doing sth)
evitare di to avoid (doing sth)
lasciare di (R3) to leave off (doing sth)
rifiutar(si) di to refuse to (do sth)
stancarsi di to get tired of (doing sth)
trascurare di to neglect to (do sth)
(b) Other verbs
aver bisogno di to need to (do sth)
essere in grado di to be able to (do sth)
permettersi di to take the liberty of (doing sth)
sforzarsi di to make an effort to (do sth)
27.2.6 Verb + direct object + di + infinitive
With all these verbs, the subject of the infinitive is the direct object of the
main verb. If this direct object is “impersonal,” it is omitted (cf. section
24.10).
Li ho ringraziati di essere venuti.
I thanked them for coming.
Si prega di non fumare.
Please do not smoke (lit. One asks [people] not to smoke).
371
27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives
(a) Verbs of telling or asking sb to do sth
The di + infinitive may be replaced in R2–3 by a che clause with the
verb in the subjunctive, e.g.:
Ho pregato gli ospiti di entrare.
Ho pregato gli ospiti che entrassero.
I asked the guests to come in.
avvertire qu di (also a) to warn sb to (do sth)
implorare qu di (R2–3) to implore sb to (do sth)
incaricare qu di to entrust sb to (do sth)
pregare qu di to beg sb to (do sth)
scongiurare qu di (also a) to beg sb to (do sth)
supplicare qu di (also a) to beg sb to (do sth)
(b) Verbs of accusing, thanking
accusare qu di to accuse sb of (doing sth)
rimproverare qu di (also per) to reprove sb for (doing sth)
ringraziare qu di (also per) to thank sb for (doing sth)
27.2.7 Verb + indirect object + di + infinitive
With all these verbs, the subject of the infinitive is the indirect object of
the main verb. If this indirect object is “impersonal,” it is omitted (cf.
section 24.10). The di + infinitive may be replaced in R2–3 by a che
clause with the verb in the subjunctive, e.g.:
Ho chiesto all’ispettore di entrare.
Ho chiesto all’ispettore che entrasse.
I asked the inspector to come in.
note Ho chiesto che entrasse l’ispettore.
I asked (someone else) for the inspector to come in, i.e. I asked for the
inspector to be shown in.
(a) Verbs of telling or asking sb to do sth
Note that with verbs of telling, the subject of the infinitive is
understood to be the same as that of the main verb when the infinitive is
in the past. Compare:
Gli ho detto di vedere quali alternative ci fossero.
I told him to see what alternatives there were.
Gli ho detto di non aver mai visto l’accusato (R2–3).
I told him that I had never seen the accused.
accennare a qu di (R3) to beckon to sb to (do sth)
chiedere a qu di to ask sb to (do sth)
comandare a qu di to order sb to (do sth)
consigliare a qu di to advise sb to (do sth)
dire a qu di to tell sb to (do sth)
domandare a qu di to ask sb to (do sth)
impedire a qu di to prevent sb from (doing sth)
imporre a qu di to force sb to (do sth)
ordinare a qu di to order sb to (do sth)
proporre a qu di to suggest to sb that they (do sth)
raccomandare a qu di to recommend to sb to (do sth)
372
27.2 di before an infinitive
(b) Verbs of allowing or forbidding
concedere a qu di (R2–3) to concede permission to sb/allow sb
to (do sth)
permettere a qu di to permit sb to (do sth)
proibire a qu di to forbid sb to (do sth)
vietare a qu di to forbid sb to (do sth)
le hanno vietato di
uscire dopo cena
they have forbidden her to go out after
dinner
le `e stato vietato di
uscire dopo cena
she has been prohibited from going
out after dinner
but (`e) vietato fumare (cf.
section 27.1.1)
no smoking
27.2.8 Adjectives + di + infinitive
A large number of adjectives in Italian take di before a following infinitive.
They refer to mood or mental state, or to ability. Some of these adjectives
may take per to express cause. In many cases a che clause may substitute
for the di + infinitive clause.
ansioso di anxious to (do sth)
capace di able to (do sth), capable of (doing sth)
certo di sure to (do sth)
colpevole di guilty of (doing sth)
compiaciuto di pleased to (do sth)
consapevole di aware of (doing sth)
contento di happy to (do sth)
curioso di curious to (do sth)
degno di worthy of (doing sth)
disperato di (also per) desperate to (do sth)
dispiaciuto di (also per) sorry to (do sth)
felice di happy to (do sth)
fiero di proud to (do sth/of doing sth)
fortunato di (also a) lucky to (do sth)
grato di (also per) grateful to (do sth)
impaziente impatient to (do sth)
incapace di incapable of (doing sth)
incaricato di charged with (doing sth)
irritato di irritated at (doing sth)
libero di free to (do sth)
lieto di happy to (do sth)
onorato di honored to (do sth)
responsabile di responsible for (doing sth)
riconoscente di (also
per)
grateful to (do sth)
sicuro di sure to (do sth)
soddisfatto di (also per) satisfied at (doing sth)
sorpreso di surprised to (do sth)
373
27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives
stanco di tired from (doing sth)
stufo di sick and tired of (doing sth)
27.3 a before an infinitive
In keeping with the original meanings of a (see section 25.1.1), verbs and
adjectives that take a before an infinitive often express some kind of
movement, either physical or metaphorical, or a state or mental attitude.
With a, the infinitive is always in the present tense, and is understood as
referring to the same time as the main verb or to a subsequent moment in
time.
27.3.1 Verbs that refer to the beginning, continuing, or ending
of an action
attaccare a
cominciare a (also col)
incominciare a to start (to do sth/doing sth)
mettersi a
ricominciare a
riprendere a


scoppiare a (usu
piangere/ridere)
to burst out (laughing, crying)
continuare a
persistere a (R2–3) to go on (doing sth)
seguitare a


27.3.2 Verbs that express movement (literal or figurative)
affrettarsi a to hurry to (do sth)
andare a to go to (do sth)
arrivare a (fig) to get to the point of (doing sth)
buttarsi a (fig) to throw oneself into (doing sth)
correre a to run to (do sth)
fermarsi a to stop to (do sth)
giungere a (fig) to reach the point of (doing sth)
passare a to pass (by) to (do sth)
precipitarsi a to rush to (do sth)
salire a to go up to (do sth)
scendere a to go down to (do sth)
tornare a to go back to (doing sth)
venire a to come to do sth
voltarsi a to turn (round) to do sth
374
27.3 a before an infinitive
27.3.3 Verbs that express a mental attitude or disposition
(e.g. state, tendency, or will)
abbandonarsi a to give oneself to (doing sth)
abituarsi a to get used to (doing sth)
accingersi a (R2–3) to prepare to (do sth)
adattarsi a to adapt oneself to (doing sth)
allenarsi a to train to (do sth)
apprestarsi a (R2–3) to prepare to (do sth)
attardarsi a (R2–3) to linger to (do sth)
concentrarsi a to concentrate on (doing sth)
contribuire a to contribute to (doing sth)
decidersi a to make up one’s mind to (do sth)
divertirsi a to enjoy onself (doing sth)
esitare a (also nel [R3]) to hesitate to (do sth)
essere tenuto a to be required to (do sth)
far bene/male/meglio a to do well/badly/better to
(do sth)
fare presto a to hurry to (do sth), to do sth
easily
fare in tempo a to be in time to (do sth)
farcela a (R1–2) to manage to (do sth)
faticare a to have difficulty in (doing sth)
imparare a to learn to (do sth)
impegnarsi a (also di) to commit oneself to (doing sth)
insistere a (also nel) to insist on (doing sth)
limitarsi a to limit oneself to (doing sth)
mirare a to aim to (do sth)
prepararsi a to get ready to (do sth)
prestarsi a (R2–3) to offer to (do sth)
provare a to try (doing sth)
rassegnarsi a to resign oneself to (doing sth)
rinunciare a to renounce (doing sth)
riuscire a to manage to (do sth)
sbrigarsi a (R1–2) to hurry to (do sth)
stentare a to have difficulty in (doing sth)
tendere a to tend to (do sth)
27.3.4 Verbs that express being or staying
essere a to be in the process of (doing sth)
sono tutti a dormire they are all sleeping
restare a to stay (doing sth)
rimanere a to stay (doing sth)
stare a (R1–2, cf. section 20.2) to be (doing sth)
trovarsi a to find oneself (doing sth)
375
27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives
27.3.5 Verb + direct object + a + infinitive
These verbs express helping, encouraging, or influencing a person (or, in
some cases, thing) to do something.
abituare qu a to accustom sb to (doing sth)
aiutare qu a to help sb (to) (do sth)
autorizzare qu a to authorise sb to (do sth)
chiamare qu a to call sb to (do sth)
condannare qu a to condemn sb (to do/doing sth)
condurre qu a to lead sb to (do sth)
convincere qu a to persuade sb to (do sth)
costringere qu a to force sb to (do sth)
esortare qu a to exhort sb to (do sth)
incitare qu a to incite sb to (do sth)
incoraggiare qu a to encourage sb to (do sth)
indurre qu a to induce sb to (do sth)
invitare qu a to invite sb to (do sth)
mandare a
mandare a chiamare qu to send for sb
mandare a dire a qu to send word to sb
obbligare qu a to force sb to (do sth)
persuadere qu a to persuade sb to (do sth)
portare qu a to take sb to (do sth)
predisporre qu a to predispose sb to (do sth)
programmare qc a to program sth to (do sth)
sfidare qu a to challenge sb to (do sth)
spingere qu a to drive sb to (do sth)
spronare qu a (R2–3) to urge sb to (do sth)
27.3.6 Verb + indirect object + a + infinitive
insegnare a qu a to teach sb to (do sth)
27.3.7 Adjectives + a and infinitive
Most Italian adjectives take a before an infinitive.
abile a (also nel) good at (doing sth)
abituato a accustomed to (doing sth)
adatto a (also per) useful for (doing sth)
addetto a responsible for (doing sth)
affaccendato (also nel) busy (doing sth)
attento a (also nel) careful to (do sth)
atto a (R2–3) suitable for (doing sth)
buono a (R1–2, also per, da)
il cuoco `e buono a fare la
pasta
the cook is good at making pasta
la pasta `e buona per
sfamare i ragazzi
pasta is good for feeding young
people
376
27.3 a before an infinitive
questa pasta `e buona da
mangiare
this pasta is good to eat
bravo a (also nel) good at (doing sth)
costretto a obliged to (do sth)
deciso a (also nel) determined on (doing sth)
destinato a destined to (do sth)
disponibile a available to (do sth)
disposto a prepared to (do sth)
efficace a (also nel, per) effective at (doing sth)
esitante a (also nel) hesitant in (doing sth)
forte a (R1–2, also nel) strong in (doing sth)
idoneo a suitable for (doing sth)
incline a inclined to (do sth)
intento a intent on (doing sth)
interessato a interested in (doing sth)
necessario a (also per) necessary for (doing sth)
occupato a (also nel) busy (doing sth)
preparato a (also per) prepared for (doing sth)
pronto a (also da, per) ready to (do sth)
prossimo a close to (doing sth)
recalcitrante a (R2–3) recalcitrant to (do sth)
riluttante a (R2–3, also nel) reluctant to (do sth)
sufficiente a (also da, per) sufficient for (doing sth)
valido a (also per) valid for (doing sth)
veloce a (also nel) quick at (doing sth)
note: With the following adjectives, the verb in the infinitive has a
passive meaning. In higher registers the adjectives take a (with the
infinitive often reflexive), but in R1–2 the adjectives usually take da, e.g.:
La sua voce era bella a udirsi/udire (R2–3).
La sua voce era bella da udire (R1–2).
Her voice was beautiful to hear.
bello beautiful
commovente moving
difficile difficult
facile easy
impossibile impossible
orribile
orribile a dirsi (R2–3)
horrible
horribile dictu
raro rare
strano strange
strano a dirsi strange to say
terribile terrible
27.3.8 a + infinitive in place of a che clause
This usage occurs with avere, lasciare, trovare, sorprendere. Cf. verbs
of perception, section 27.1.3.
377
27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives
Elena ha trovato Tommaso a suonare il pianoforte.
= Elena ha trovato Tommaso che suonava il pianoforte.
Elena found Tommaso playing the piano.
It is also found in “cleft sentences” (see section 18.2). Note where the past
tense is expressed:
Sono stati loro a dirmelo.
= Sono loro che me l’hanno detto.
It was they who told me.
It also occurs with il primo, ultimo, solo, unico, and with all ordinal
numbers (cf. section 30.4), e.g.:
Tu sarai la prima/seconda/ultima/sola/unica a saperlo.
= Tu sarai la prima/seconda/ultima/sola/unica che lo sapr`a.
You will be the first/second/last/only one to know.
It also occurs with all cardinal numbers except one and generic quantifiers
in the expression essere (in) due (etc.) a, e.g.:
Sono in quattro/mille/molti/pochi a saperlo.
= Sono quattro/mille/molti/pochi a saperlo che lo sanno.
There are four/a thousand/many/few people who know it.
27.4 da before an infinitive
Da before an infinitive can follow a verb, adjective, or noun. This
construction expresses a consequence or an obligation.
27.4.1 After verbs
Da occurs with verbs of being and expresses compulsion. The da phrase
may be the subject of the verb:
non c’`e da vergognarsi/
meravigliarsi
there’s nothing to be ashamed
of/surprised at
viene da chiedersi se lei
sta/stia dicendo la verit`a
one begins to wonder if she is
telling the truth
mi veniva da ridere I felt like laughing
or it may be the predicate of the verb:
il film `e da vedere/vedersi
(R2–3)
the film is to be seen
restano/rimangono da
fare tre cose
three things remain to be done
mi restano/rimangono da
fare tre cose
I still have three things to do
For similar constructions with an indirect object, see section 32.1.1.
With several common verbs, da plus infinitive is used in such a way that
a generic noun may be understood. This noun must sometimes be added
to the English equivalent expression:
ho da fare I have work/things to do, I am busy
ci ha dato da pensare she gave us something to think about
378
27.5 per before an infinitive
sta facendo da mangiare he’s cooking
che c’`e da mangiare/bere? what is there to eat/drink?
27.4.2 After adjectives or adverbs
Da normally combines with cos`ı, s`ı (R3), tale, talmente, tanto,
abbastanza. These words can sometimes be understood.
la proposta fu cos`ı/tanto
intelligente da convincere
tutti
the proposal was so intelligent as
to convince everyone
ha agito in maniera strana, s`ı
da destare sospetti (R3)
he acted strangely, such as to
arouse suspicion
c’era una folla (tale) da farti
star male
there was a crowd such as would
make you feel unwell
`e talmente evidente da non
ammettere dubbi
it was so obvious as not to allow
doubts
era abbastanza grande da/per
capire certe cose
he was big enough to understand
certain things
faceva un caldo da morire it was terribly hot
27.4.3 After nouns
The expression da + infinitive may also be used as an adjective,
immediately after a noun, e.g.:
`e un film da vedere/vedersi
(R2–3)
it’s a film to see/be seen
27.5 per before an infinitive
Per before an infinitive can follow a verb, adjective or noun. It expresses
purpose or cause.
27.5.1 After verbs
Per before an infinitive may occur after any verb, to express the purpose
of the main verb. It corresponds to English to, in order to:
lavora per mantenere la
famiglia
she works to support her family
With verbs of movement which take a before an infinitive, a phrase with a
implies that the two actions both took place, but a phrase with per is
ambiguous as to whether the aim was realized or not. A change of
auxiliary is also required with certain verbs (cf. section 22.4):
sono corso a vederla I ran and saw her
ho corso per vederla I ran to see her
With a past infinitive, per expresses cause, and corresponds to English
because or through:
379
27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives
si `e ammalato per aver
inalato gas tossici
he fell ill through inhaling toxic
gasses
si `e lamentato per/di non
aver ricevuto l’invito
he complained because he had
not received the invitation
27.5.2 After adjectives or adverbs
Per combines with troppo:
ho mangiato troppo per
poter dormire subito
I’ve eaten too much to go to
sleep immediately
lui `e troppo giovane per
capire
he is too young to understand
27.5.3 After nouns
Per is often equivalent to da (see section 25.12). However, stock phrases
with da cannot be modified, whereas with per the verb can be modified
as if in a normal sentence.
una macchina da/per cucire a sewing machine
una macchina per cucire con
il filo d’oro
a machine for sewing with gold
thread
una macchina per cucire
lentamente
a machine for sewing slowly
27.6 con, da, in + article before an infinitive
When con and in come before an infinitive, they always combine with
the definite article (masculine singular: il or lo); da also has this usage,
with certain meanings. There are a few verbs that can only take one of
these prepositions before an infinitive, but in most cases these articulated
prepositions are an alternative to other constructions, and are used in
higher registers.
For the use of the infinitive with articulated prepositions to form
subordinate clauses, see section 32.2.1.
27.6.1 con
Con followed by an infinitive may usually be replaced by a gerund, and
tends to occur with the pair of verbs indicated below. It corresponds to
English by + gerund.
(in)cominciare col (also per)
fare qc
to begin by (doing sth)
finire col (also per) fare qc to end up by (doing sth)
380
27.6 con, da, in + article before an infinitive
27.6.2 da
In keeping with the original meanings of da (see section 25.5), verbs and
adjectives that take da before an infinitive often express some kind of
distance, or beginning (i.e. moving away from something).
Verbs
astenersi dal to abstain from (doing sth)
desistere dal to desist from (doing sth)
diffidare qu dal (also a) to warn sb not to (do sth)
dissuadere qu dal to dissuade sth from (doing sth)
guardarsi bene dal to be careful not to (do sth)
morire dal ridere to die laughing
scoraggiare qu dal to discourage sb from (doing sth)
trattenersi dal to stop oneself from (doing sth)
Adjectives
alieno dal
often used in the negative, e.g.:
non sono alieno dal
consentire
I’m inclined to agree
lontano dal
sono ben lontano dal
credere che
I certainly don’t believe that . . .
lungi dal
sono lungi dal pensare una
cosa simile
I wouldn’t dream of thinking
such a thing
27.6.3 in
Out of the three prepositions included here, this is the most commonly
used in this construction. It corresponds to English in, at, on + gerund.
The verbs, adjectives and nouns which take in express unity or skill or,
rarely, state of mind:
Verbs
consistere nel to consist of /lie in (doing sth)
essere nel to lie in (doing sth)
esitare nel (also a) to hesitate (to do/in doing sth)
stare nel to consist of /lie in (doing sth)
Adjectives
abile nel (also a) clever at (doing sth)
bravo nel (also a) good at (doing sth)
concorde nel in agreement in (doing sth)
381
27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives
consistente nel fare
qc
which consists in doing sth
gentile nel kind in (doing sth)
il primo/ultimo nel
(also a)
the first/last to (do sth)
Also the expressions:
essere d’accordo
nel fare qc
to agree on doing sth
essere maestro/
specialista nel fare
qc
to be a maestro/specialist in doing sth
Nouns
difficolt`a, fantasia, godimento, impassibilit`a, letizia, ritardo,
sorpresa, etc., e.g.:
Non ho avuto nessuna difficolt`a nel chiedergli di restituirmi le
chiavi.
I had no problem in asking him to give back the keys.
27.7 Prepositional constructions
This section includes verbs followed by another verb, where different
prepositions (or no preposition) are associated with different meanings of
the main verb.
accennare mi accennava di avvicinarmi
she was beckoning to me to come nearer
non accennava a cambiare idea (R2–3)
she was showing no signs of changing her
mind
ammonire (R3) ammon`ı suo figlio di non frequentare
pi `u quella casa
he advised his son not to frequent that house
any more
ammon`ı il suo amico a essere pi `u
pratico
he exhorted his friend to be more practical
apprendere (R2–3) ho appreso di essere stato proposto per
il comitato
I found out I had been nominated for the
committee
il bambino ha appreso a leggere e a
scrivere
the child has learned to read and write
aspettare aspetta di vederlo!
wait until you see him!
aspetta a partire!
382
27.7 Prepositional constructions
don’t leave yet!
mi aspetto di vedervi alla cena
I expect to see you at the dinner
avere ho da fare
I’m busy (lit I have [things] to do)
ho da dirti una cosa
I must tell you something
ho una cosa da dirti
I have something to tell you
ebbe a dire che si dimetteva (R3)
(note: passato remoto only)
he happened to say that he was resigning
aver paura/
vergogna
avevo paura/vergogna di chiedergli i
soldi che mi deve
I was afraid/ashamed to ask him for the
money he owes me
avevo paura/vergogna a chiedergli i
soldi che mi deve
I felt afraid/ashamed as I asked him for the
money he owes me
badare bada di finire in tempo
make sure you finish on time
bada a fare il tuo lavoro
you just get on with your work
bastare per contattarmi, basta telefonare a
questo numero
to contact me, just phone this number
`e molto triste, e una cena fuori non
baster`a a rallegrarlo
he is very sad and a dinner out won’t be
enough to cheer him up
cominciare ha cominciato a servire il primo piatto
alle otto
he began to serve/serving the first course at
eight
ha cominciato col servire il primo
piatto
he began by serving the first course
compiacersi (R3) si compiaceva a stuzzicarlo
she enjoyed teasing him
il ministro si `e finalmente compiaciuto
di riceverci
the minister finally deigned to receive us
consentire questo gli consente di rimanere
inattivo
this allows him to remain inactive
383
27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives
il comitato ha consentito a rivedere il
caso
the committee agreed to review the case
convenire gli conviene tacere
it is better for him to keep silent
abbiamo convenuto di partire alle sette
(R2–3)
we agreed to leave at seven
decidere Chiara ha deciso di partire
Chiara has decided to leave
Chiara si `e decisa a partire
Chiara has made up her mind to leave
determinare (R3) ha determinato di perseverare
he has resolved to persevere
l’infarto ha determinato Giuseppe a
cambiare vita
the heart attack led Giuseppe to change his
lifestyle
mi sono determinato a confessare tutto
I resolved to confess everything
disporre (R3) il comandante dispose di partire (R3)
the commandant decided to leave
ha disposto i genitori a sentire la brutta
notizia (R3)
he prepared his parents to hear the bad news
si `e disposta a partire
she prepared to leave
fare in the expression Come fare a . . . , e.g.:
come fai a conoscerlo? (R1–2)
how come you know him?
fece per uscire, ma lei lo ferm`o con lo
sguardo
he made as if to leave, but she stopped him
with a look
finire alle otto ho finito di mangiare
at eight I finished eating
c’era troppa gente in casa, e sono
finito a studiare in giardino
there were too many people inside, and I
ended up studying in the garden
finirai per farlo arrabbiare / finirai col
farlo arrabbiare
you’ll end up (by) making him angry
insistere insisteva di non conoscere nessuno
degli imputati (R2–3)
he insisted (that) he knew none of the
accused
384
27.7 Prepositional constructions
ha insistito a salutare tutti: c’`e voluta
un’ora
he insisted on saying goodbye to everyone:
it took an hour
insisteva per incontrarmi appena
possibile (R3)
he insisted he should meet me as soon as
possible
ha institito nel dire che . . .
he kept on saying that . . .
intendere intendevo di trovarmi tra persone
amiche (R3)
I understood that I was among friends
intendevo parlare con un amico
I intended to speak with a friend
interessare non mi interessa parlare del passato
talking about the past doesn’t interest me
sono interessato a lavorare con voi
I’m interested in working with you
l’ho interessato a scrivere per quella
facenda (R3)
I interested him in writing about that affair
lasciare ho lasciato giocare i bambini tutta la
mattina
I let the children play all morning
il tuo comportamento lascia a
desiderare
your behaviour leaves something to be desired
mancare ho mancato a non dirtelo (R2–3)
I was wrong not to tell you
ho mancato di dirtelo
I forgot to tell you
pensare non pensa a sposarsi
she is not thinking of/about marrying
non pensa di sposarsi
she doesn’t think she will marry
persuadersi si persuase di essere trascurato
he became convinced that he was being
ignored
mi sono persuaso a comprarla
I made up my mind to buy it
risolvere (R3) ha risolto di raccontare tutto
he resolved to tell everything
si `e risolto a raccontare tutto
he came to the decision to tell everything
riuscire non sono riuscito a finire il lavoro
I couldn’t (manage to) finish the job
385
27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives
non mi `e riuscito di finire il lavoro
it wasn’t possible for me to finish the job
sbagliare ho sbagliato a seguire le tue
indicazioni
either I was wrong to follow your
instructions (i.e. I shouldn’t have followed
them)
or I followed your instructions incorrectly
ho sbagliato nel seguire le tue
indicazioni
I followed your instructions incorrectly
servire non serve gridare
there’s no point shouting
questo bottone serve a chiudere il
programma
this button is for closing the program
stare che stai a dire? (cf. section 20.2)
what are you saying?
non posso parlare adesso: sto per
partire
I can’t talk now: I am about to leave
tentare ho tentato di aprire il file, ma era
corrotto
I tried to open the file, but it was corrupt
mi ha tentato a fermarmi un’altra
settimana
he tempted me to stay another week
vedere ho visto quell’uomo prendere soldi
dall’imputato
I saw that man taking money from the
accused
non ce lo vedo proprio, Matteo, a
lavorare senza paga (R1)
I really can’t see Matteo working for
nothing
vedr`o di mandarti l’indirizzo in
settimana
I’ll make sure I send you the address within
the week
venire se compri tutto, ti viene a costare un
occhio
if you buy everything, it will cost you an
arm and a leg
mi viene da piangere
I feel like crying
386
27.7 Prepositional constructions
27.7.1 No preposition in Italian: preposition in English
Verbs not listed above which take no preposition before a following noun
but correspond to English verbs that do (cf. chapter 4):
approfondire qc to go deeply into sth
approvare qc/qu to approve of sth/sb
ascoltare qc/qu to listen to sth/sb
aspettare qc/qu to wait for sth/sb
calpestare qc to trample on sth
cercare qc/qu to look for sth/sb
chiedere qc (a qu) to ask (sb) for sth
commentare qc to comment on sth
compensare qc
but compensare qu di/per qc
to compensate for sth
to compensate sb for sth
disapprovare qc/qu to disapprove of sth/sb
domandare qc (a qu) to ask (sb) for sth
guardare qc/qu
but guardare a qc/qu (R2–3)
to look at sth/sb
to look to sth/sb
incendiare qc to set fire to sth
operare qu to operate on sb
pagare qc
but pagare qu
ho pagato questa giacca
cinquanta euro
or ho pagato cinquanta
euro per questa giacca
to pay for sth (i.e. the thing
bought), or
to pay sth (e.g. an account)
to pay sb
I paid 50 euro for this jacket
pregare Dio, la Madonna, i
santi
but pregare qu
to pray to God, the Virgin, the
saints
to beg sb
piangere qc/qu to weep for/over sth/sb
presiedere qc to preside over sth
sbagliare qc to make a mistake about sth
soffrire qc (e.g. caldo, fame)
but soffrire di una malattia
to suffer from sth (e.g. heat,
hunger)
to suffer from an illness
sognare qc/qu to dream of sth/sb
tacere qc to keep silent about sth
vegliare qu
but vegliare su qc/qu
to keep vigil over sb (sick or dead)
to keep watch over sth/sb
votare qc/qu
but votare per qc/qu (R1–2)
to vote for sth/sb
to vote for sth/sb
387
27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives
27.7.2 Preposition in Italian: no preposition in English
Italian verbs which take a preposition before a following verb or noun but
correspond to English verbs that do not:
abusare di qc
abusare di qu, (see section 2.2)
to abuse sth
accorgersi di qc/qu to notice sth/sb
adempiere a qc (R2–3)
also adempiere qc
to fulfil sth
appropriarsi di qc to appropriate sth
assistere a qc to witness sth
chiedere qc a qu to ask sb for sth
congratularsi con qu (di qc) to congratulate sb (for/on sth)
contravvenire a qc (R2–3) to contravene sth
disporre di qc/qu to have sth/sb at one’s disposal
domandare qc a qu to ask sb for sth
dubitare di qc/qu to doubt sth/sb
esercitarsi a fare qc to practice doing sth
fare bene a qc/qu to benefit sth/sb
fare male a qc/qu to hurt sth/sb
fidarsi di qc/qu to trust sth/sb
giocare a qc (sport/game) to play sth
giovare a qc/qu to benefit sth/sb
influire su qc/qu
but influenzare qu/qc
to influence sth/sb
to influence sth/sb
rispondere a qc/qu to answer sth/sb
servirsi di qc to use sth
somigliare a qc/qu
also assomigliare,
rassomigliare
to resemble sth/sb
telefonare a qu to telephone sb
ubbidire a qc/qu to obey sth/sb
volere bene a qu to love sb
27.7.3 Some prepositions which do not correspond in
Italian and English
accontentarsi di qc to make do with sth
chiedere di qu to ask after sb
dipendere da qc/qu to depend on sth/sb
perdonare qc a qu to forgive sb for sth
ricordare qc a qu to remind sb of sth
togliere qc a qu to take sth from sb
388
28 Use of tenses
The main functions of the tenses in Italian are listed here under two major
types of meaning: (i) temporal, referring to time – past, present, future;
(ii) modal, referring to the speaker’s attitude to what s/he is saying
(command, opinion, politeness, etc.). The category of aspect, referring to
how an action is viewed, relates only to certain tenses and will be
discussed as necessary.
28.1 Present tense (faccio, vado)
Temporal functions Modal functions
Any kind of pre sent, including reference
to a general state of affairs which includes the
pre sent, e.g.:
intention in future, e.g.:
Se mi scassi la macchina, ti picchio.
If you smash my car, I’ll hit you.
Ti ascolto.
I’m listening to you.
Accetto con piacere.
I accept with pleasure.
Adesso so che fare.
Now I know what to do.
Oggi fa freddo.
It’s cold today.
Mi fai un caff´e?
Will you make me a coffee?
ability in general present, e.g.:
Parla tre lingue.
She speaks three languages.
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
389
28 Use of tenses
Temporal functions Modal functions
Arrivo sempre alle cinque.
I always arrive at five.
Il Po `e il fiume pi `u lungo d’Italia.
The Po is the longest river in Italy.
Come dice Dante nel De Vulgari
Eloquentia, . . .
As Dante says in the De Vulgari Eloquentia, . . .
Da questa finestra si vedono le
montagne.
From this window you can see the
mountains.
imperative (see also section 28.2 and
chapter 30), e.g.:
Adesso tu torni a casa e mi riporti le
chiavi, capito?
Now you go back home and bring me the
keys, is that clear?
Future (R1–2), e.g.:
Domani andiamo al lago.
Tomorrow we’re going to the lake.
L’anno prossimo ricorre il centenario
della nascita dell’artista.
Next year the artist’s centenary will be/is
being celebrated.
immediate past (especially R1), e.g.:
Arrivo proprio adesso: cos’`e successo?
I’ve arrived just now: what’s happened?
past in narratives (“Historic Present”), e.g.:
Ieri sera vado al cinema e chi vedo?
Emilia!
Last night I go to the movies and who do I
see? Emilia!
Ero fermo al semaforo, di colpo si
avvicina uno, e fa “Dammi i soldi!”
I was stopped at the traffic lights, suddenly a
man comes up, and he goes “Give me your
money!”
past continuing to present ( see section
25.5.2), e.g.:
Vivo qui da due mesi.
I’ve been living here for two months.
390
28.2 Future
Temporal functions Modal functions
past in minutes of meetings, e.g.:
La riunione ha inizio alle 11.25. Il
presidente d`a il benvenuto ai nuovi
componenti del comitato . . .
The meeting opened at 11.25am. The Chair
welcomed the new members of the
commmitee . . .
past in curriculum vitae, e.g.:
Maria Rossi studia all’universit`a di
Roma dove si laurea nel 2002 con una
tesi su . . .
Maria Rossi studied at the university of
Rome where she graduated in 2002 with a
thesis on . . .
28.2 Future tense (faro` , andro` )
Temporal functions Modal functions
future (but increasingly rare in R1), e.g.:
Lo sapremo domani.
We’ll find out tomorrow.
future in past (R3), e.g.:
Conobbe un giovane deputato. Dieci
anni dopo, egli diventer`a Presidente del
partito.
He met a young member of parliament. Ten
years later, he was to become President of the
Party.
intention, e.g.:
Domani verr `o senz’altro.
I’ll come tomorrow for sure.
imperative (see also section 28.1 and
chapter 30), e.g.:
Lo farai quando te lo dico io.
You’ll do it when I tell you.
Non ucciderai (= non uccidere).
Thou shalt not kill.
supposition in the pre sent, e.g.:
A quest’ora sar`a a casa.
At this hour he must be at home.
391
28 Use of tenses
28.3 Future Perfect tense (avro` fatto, saro` andato)
Temporal functions Modal functions
Anteriority in future, e.g.:
Quando lo vedremo, avr `o finito il
lavoro.
supposition anterior to the pre sent,
e.g.:
A quest’ora sar`a gi`a uscito di casa.
When we see him, I will have finished the
job.
Chiuderanno la sala dopo che tutti
saranno usciti.
They will lock the room after everyone has
gone out.
At this hour he must have left the house
already.
28.4 Present Conditional tense (farei, andrei)
Modal functions
politeness, e.g.:
Vorrei due francobolli per l’Australia.
I would like two stamps for Australia.
Potresti prestarmi la penna?
Could you lend me your pen?
allegation of pre sent action (made by
third party, the speaker is non-committal),
e.g.:
Il Presidente sarebbe pronto a
dimettersi.
The President is said to be ready to resign.
hypothesis in pre sent or future (see
section 31.1), e.g.:
Ti aiuterei volentieri se potessi, ma . . .
I would gladly help you if I could, but . . .
392
28.6 Passato Prossimo and Passato Remoto
28.5 Conditional Perfect tense (avrei fatto, sarei andato)
Temporal functions Modal functions
future in past, e.g.:
Il dottore ha detto che sarebbe tornato
domani.
The doctor said he would come back
tomorrow.
Mi aveva promesso che sarebbe venuto
ieri, ma non si `e fatto vedere.
He promised he would come yesterday, but
he didn’t show himself.
allegation of past action (made by third
party, the speaker is non-committal), e.g.:
Il Presidente avrebbe consultato i leader
di tutti i partiti.
The President is said to have consulted the
leaders of all parties.
hypothesis in past (see section 31.1),
e.g.:
Ti avrei mandato l’invito, ma ho perso
il tuo indirizzo.
I would have sent the invitation, but I lost
your address.
28.6 Perfect tenses – Passato Prossimo
and Passato Remoto
The Passato Prossimo (PP) and Passato Remoto (PR) are both Perfect tenses
(see section 28.7). In general PR is being used less and less, especially in
speech, and is being replaced by PP. The difference between these two
tenses is complex and often subtle and cannot be explained by any single
criterion. There are four parameters that may bear on the choice of
tense.
(i) Regional differences
In R1–2 speech, the two tenses are both in use in Central and Southern
Italy, especially Tuscany. In the North, only PP is used (as the dialects have
not used PR for some centuries); in the far South – Sicily, southern
Calabria and southern Puglia – PR is in common use, though PP is
gaining ground.
(ii) Type of language use
PR is used more in writing than in speech. In a novel, PR may be used
for the narrative and PP for direct speech.
(iii) Formality
The more formal the situation, the more likely is the use of PR. Thus PR
is widely used in R3 writing, and also in R2 but not if the writing is based
on, or imitates, speech. In the spoken language, PR is generally used in
the third person, to “tell the story,” while PP is used in the first and
second persons, for reference to the people involved in the conversation.
393
28 Use of tenses
(iv) Distance in the past
In general PR is used for events that are actually in the distant past or are
felt as distant. In R3 writing, PR is used for actions considered as past
events without any connection to the present, while PP is used for actions
in a more recent time frame that includes the present. In central Italy, the
two tenses may be used to express the “psychological” distance that the
speaker feels from the events, e.g.:
Feci un colloquio ma non ebbi il posto.
I had an interview but I didn’t get the job.
Ho fatto un colloquio e mi hanno assunto.
I had an interview and they hired me.
In the far South regions, PR was, until recent times, the only perfect tense
in the dialects and so was used in Italian for all past actions, even in the
very recent past. An oft-cited example is:
Dormisti bene? (first thing in the morning)
Did you sleep well?
This usage is receding.
Switching between the tenses
It is wrong to switch indiscriminately between the two perfect tenses.
Whichever tense is chosen in a given situation must be maintained and
should be changed only if there is some change in meaning, e.g.:
Lo conobbi a un ricevimento nel ’68 e ieri, dopo tutti questi
anni, l’ho rivisto per caso.
I met him at a party back in 1968 and yesterday, after all these years, I
saw him again by chance.
28.7 Imperfect and Perfect
The term “Perfect” covers Passato Prossimo and Passato Remoto, since there
is no difference between them in terms of their opposition to the
Imperfect. The distinction between the Imperfetto and the two Perfect
tenses is one of aspect, i.e. it concerns not the action in itself but how it is
presented. Most actions or states can be referred to by either tense,
depending on how the speaker views them or wishes to present them.
Verb forms in English do not mark the distinction so clearly as in Italian,
e.g. would do, used to do, was doing are imperfect, but did can be either
perfect or imperfect. Compare the two meanings of was in the following:
Chi ha mangiato il Panettone? – Sono stato io.
Who ate the Panettone? – It was me.
Chi suonava il pianoforte stamattina alle 10? – Ero io.
Who was playing the piano this morning at 10? – It was me.
The Perfect expresses actions or states as individual, closed events in the
past, irrespective of how long they took. The Imperfect expresses actions
or states that happened in the past at the same time as something else,
394
28.7 Imperfect and Perfect
stated or implied in the text: it says simply that they were taking place at a
certain moment, without regard to their beginning or end. Compare:
La dominazione araba della Sicilia dur`o 250 anni, fino alla
conquista normanna.
The Arab domination of Sicily lasted for 250 years, until the Norman
conquest.
In quell’istante ho visto una donna davanti a casa mia. Stava in
piedi e cantava . . .
In that instant I saw a woman outside my house. She was standing and
singing . . .
In telling a story, the Perfect says what happened next, in the foreground,
and moves the story forward. The Imperfect sets the scene and the
background, and then interrupts the narrative flow to ‘pause’ the action
for comment or descriptions, e.g.:
C’era una volta un pezzo di legno. Un giorno Mastro Ciliegia
cerc`o di tagliarlo, ma il pezzo di legno pianse e si lament` o.
Cos`ı lo regal`o al suo amico Geppetto, che era molto povero
e voleva farne un burattino. Quella sera anche lui cerc`o di
tagliarlo . . .
Once upon a time there was a piece of wood. One day Maestro Ciliegia
tried to cut it but the piece of wood wept and complained. So he
gave it to his friend Geppetto, who was very poor and wanted to
make a puppet out of it. That evening he too tried to cut it . . .
Two or more verbs in the Perfect usually refer to successive events. A
verb in the Imperfect is usually understood as simultaneous to another
verb, whether in the Imperfect or Perfect. Compare:
Quando Matteo `e entrato, Chiara `e uscita.
(Implies she left because he came in.)
Quando Matteo `e entrato, Chiara usciva.
(Means that she was already leaving when he arrived.)
The Imperfect may express habitual actions, e.g.:
Quando Matteo entrava, Chiara usciva.
Whenever Matteo came in, Chiara would go out.
Tutte le domeniche, Tommaso si alzava tardi e faceva
colazione al bar.
Every Sunday, Tommaso used to get up late and have breakfast at the
bar.
With verbs of knowing, the meaning changes radically according to the
choice of past aspect, e.g.:
Ho saputo la verit`a.
I learned/found out the truth.
Sapevo la verit`a ma ho taciuto.
I knew (was aware of) the truth but I kept silent.
Ho conosciuto tuo fratello ieri sera.
I met your brother last night (for the first time).
Conoscevo gi`a tuo fratello ma non tua sorella.
I already knew your brother but not your sister (i.e. I was acquainted
with him).
395
28 Use of tenses
28.7.1 Imperfect tense: other uses
Temporal functions Modal functions
past continuing to some point in the past
(see section 25.5.2), e.g.:
Vivevo l`ı da due mesi.
I had been living there for two months.
future in past (R1–2, cf. section 28.5),
e.g.:
Il dottore ha detto che tornava il giorno
dopo.
The doctor said that he was coming back the
next day.
Mi ha promesso stamattina che
telefonava domani.
He promised me this morning that he would
phone tomorrow.
past in R3 instead of Perfect, to confer high
status to events so described, e.g.:
Dante nasceva nel 1265.
Dante was born in 1265.
also in sports journalism:
Maldini pareggiava all’89◦.
Maldini equalized in the 89th minute.
politeness, e.g.:
Volevo chiedere una informazione.
I would like to ask for some information.
. . ., volevo dire, . . .
. . ., I mean, . . .
hypothesis in past (cf. section 31.1), e.g.:
Potevi dirle tutto: ormai `e troppo tardi.
You could have told her everything: now it’s
too late.
Se lo sapevo non ci andavo (R1).
If I had known, I wouldn’t have gone.
hypothesis, esp in games (R1), e.g.:
Facciamo che io ero il re e tu eri la
regina.
Let’s say I am the king and you are the
queen.
28.8 Pluperfect tense (Trapassato Prossimo – avevo
fatto, ero andato)
Temporal functions Modal functions
anteriority to past, e.g.:
Dopo che tutti avevano mangiato,
l’orchestra ha cominciato a suonare.
After everyone had eaten, the orchestra
began to play.
hypothesis in past (cf. section 28.5), e.g.:
Senza quell’incidente, a quest’ora
eravamo arrivati.
Without that accident, we would have
arrived by now.
past in past, e.g.:
Ha detto che l’aveva gi`a fatto.
He said he had already done it.
past in polite requests (R1, replaces
the Perfect), e.g.:
Ti ricordi che ti avevo chiesto (= ho
chiesto) la macchina per oggi? Potrei
averla?
You remember I asked you for the car today:
could I have it?
396
28.10 Modals
28.9 Past Anterior tense (Trapassato Remoto – ebbi
fatto, fui andato)
Temporal functions
Temporal function
Very rare, even in R3: in a temporal
subordinate clause, anteriority to past
expressed by Passato Remoto, e.g.:
Quando tutti ebbero mangiato,
l’orchestra cominci`o a suonare.
When everyone had eaten, the orchestra
began to play.
The following construction is restricted to
literary fiction:
Arrivata che fu, si sedette a capotavola.
When she had arrived, she sat at the head of
the table.
Mangiato che ebbe la carne, bevve un
calice di vino.
When she had eaten the bread, she drank a
goblet of wine.
28.10 Modals
The modal verbs dovere, potere and volere express a variety of nuances
which correspond to different English expressions. Here are some of the
most important.
deve dormire she must/has to sleep
deve aver dormito she must have slept
ha dovuto dormire she had to sleep (= was obliged to sleep)
doveva dormire she had to sleep/used to have to sleep
R1–2: she should have slept
doveva aver dormito she had to have slept
aveva dovuto
dormire
she had had to sleep, she had been obliged to
sleep
dovr`a dormire she will have to sleep
dovrebbe dormire she should/ought to sleep, she should be
asleep
avrebbe dovuto
dormire
she should have slept
pu`o farlo he can/may do it
pu`o averlo fatto he may have done it
ha potuto farlo he managed to do it
397
28 Use of tenses
poteva farlo he could do it, he used to be able to do it
R1–2: he could have done it
poteva averlo fatto he could have done it (= it was possible that
he did it)
aveva potuto farlo he had been able to do it
potr`a farlo he will be able to do it
potrebbe farlo he could/might be able to do it
potrebbe averlo fatto he could have done it (= it could be that he
did it)
avrebbe potuto farlo he could have done it/he would have been
able to do it
vuole lavorare she wants to work
vorr`a lavorare she will want to work
ha voluto lavorare she insisted on working
non ha voluto
lavorare
she refused to work
voleva lavorare she wanted to work, she used to want to
work
vorrebbe lavorare she would like to work
avrebbe voluto
lavorare
she would have liked to work
vorrebbe aver
lavorato
she would like to have worked/she wishes
she had worked
398
29 Sequence of tenses
The term “sequence of tenses” – Italian grammars traditionally use the
Latin expression consecutio temporum – covers the relationship between the
tense of the verb in the main clause and the tense of the verb in a
subordinate clause. In some cases the subordinate verb may be in the same
tense as it would be if it were in a main clause, i.e. it simply refers to the
time of the action or state being indicated. But in other cases the
subordinate tense must be selected according to whether the action or
state it refers to is simultaneous, preceding, or following, with respect to
the action or state of the main verb.
29.1 Sequence of tenses in the indicative
When the verb of the subordinate clause is in the indicative, in most cases
it may be in the same tense as if it were in a main clause (as is the case in
English), e.g.:
La mostra aprir`a all’inizio dell’anno prossimo.
The exhibition will open at the beginning of next year.
Il comitato ha deciso due anni fa che la mostra aprir`a all’inizio
dell’anno prossimo.
The committee decided two years ago that the exhibition will open at
the beginning of next year.
The following exceptions should be noted:
(i) When the main verb is in the Passato Remoto, the subordinate verb cannot
normally be in the Passato Remoto but must be in a pluperfect tense, either
Trapassato Prossimo or Trapassato Remoto (cf. section 28.8). However, the
Passato Prossimo may be found in both clauses, e.g.:
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal, colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
399
29 Sequence of tenses
Allora Carlo ammise che Lucia non lo aveva insultato (not
insult `o).
Then Carlo admitted that Lucia had not insulted him/did not insult
him.
Allora Carlo ha ammesso che Lucia non lo aveva insultato (or
ha insultato).
Then Carlo admitted that Lucia had not insulted him/did not insult
him.
(ii) The “future in the past” must be expressed by the Past Conditional, not
the Present Conditional. It is important to note that while English uses
both these tenses after a main verb in the past, with different meanings,
the Past Conditional must always be used in Italian, e.g.:
Matteo ha detto che sarebbe venuto a trovarmi.
Matteo said that he would come to see me (implying the speaker
believes Matteo will or might carry out his promise).
Matteo said that he would have come to see me (implying that it is no
longer possible).
The future in the past may also be expressed by the Imperfect, especially
in R1–2, and by the imperfect of dovere, eg:
Matteo ha detto che veniva a trovarmi.
Matteo said he was coming to see me/would come to see me.
Ho riflettuto a lungo su ci `o che doveva succedere.
I thought for a long time about what was (about) to happen.
(iii) In object clauses, the Imperfect is sometimes used, after a main verb in the
past, to refer to situations that are true in the present, e.g.:
Allora `e vero! Me l’aveva detto, Elena, che eri/sei malato.
So it’s true! Elena had told me you were/are sick.
29.2 Sequence of tenses in the subjunctive
The choice of tense for verbs in the subjunctive in subordinate clauses
depends on (i) the tense of the main verb (past or present/future) and
(ii) whether the action or state of the subordinate clause is simultaneous,
preceding, or following with respect to the main clause.
29.2.1 Main verb in the Present or Future
All four tenses of the subjunctive may be used, according to the meaning
of the subordinate clause, e.g.:
Immagino che tu sia stanco.
I imagine you are tired.
Suppongo che Giuseppe conoscesse bene il problema.
I suppose Giuseppe understood the issue well.
Non so proprio dove sia andato mio fratello.
I really don’t know where my brother has gone/went.
Mi domando ora dove Tommaso avesse conosciuto quel tipo.
I wonder now where Tommaso had met that bloke.
400
29.2 Sequence of tenses in the subjunctive
For reference to the future the Present Subjunctive or Future Indicative is
used, e.g.:
Credo che Tommaso vada/andr`a dal dentista domani.
I think Tommaso is going to the dentist tomorrow.
However, with main verbs which can imply only a future event, the
Future is not used, e.g.:
Voglio che Tommaso vada dal dentista domani (not andr`a).
I want Tommaso to go to the dentist tomorrow.
29.2.2 Main verb in the Past or Conditional
The Present and Perfect Subjunctive may not be used. If the action or
state of the subordinate clause is simultaneous with the main clause, the
Imperfect Subjunctive is used, e.g.:
Non sapevo dove andassero i miei amici.
I didn’t know where my friends were going.
If the subordinate clause follows the main clause in time, the Past
Conditional or Imperfect Subjunctive may be used, e.g.:
Non sapevo dove sarebbero andati/andassero i miei amici.
I didn’t know where my friends would go.
If the subordinate clause precedes the main clause in time, the Pluperfect
Subjunctive is used:
Non sapevo dove fossero andati i miei amici.
I didn’t know where my friends had gone.
Note the following particular usages:
(i) The Passato Prossimo acts like a true past tense if it refers to events or
actions in specific moments in the past, but acts like a present tense if it
refers to states set in periods of time which include the present, e.g.:
In quel momento ho sospettato che lei sapesse la verit`a.
At that moment I suspected that she knew the truth.
Ho sempre sospettato che lei sappia la verit`a.
I have always suspected that she knows the truth.
(ii) The Present Conditional in a main clause requires the Imperfect
Subjunctive in the subordinate clause. The Present Subjunctive is also
often used and, though frowned on by critics, is becoming more common
in R2, e.g.:
Non vorrei che domani ci fosse una barriera tra i due gruppi.
Non vorrei che domani ci sia una barriera tra i due gruppi
(R1–2).
I wouldn’t want there to be a barrier between the two groups tomorrow.
(iii) After come se, only the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive may be
used, regardless of the tense of the main clause (cf. section 30.4.10), e.g.:
Parla come se non fosse convinta di quel che dice.
She is speaking as if she is/was/were not convinced of what she’s saying.
Ti tratteranno come se non ti avessero mai conosciuto.
They will treat you as if they had never met you.
401
30 The Subjunctive
The Subjunctive mood is alive and well in contemporary Italian. Although
in R1 and casual conversation it is often replaced by the Indicative, in
more formal styles it is often compulsory (and its imperfect tense endings
are very distinctive), and it must be mastered by the student at an
advanced level. It appears to be used somewhat more in the North than in
the South.
The Subjunctive appears both in subordinate clauses (as its English
name suggests, though in Italian it is congiuntivo) and also in main clauses of
many different types. In some cases the Subjunctive is compulsory and
thus conveys no extra meaning in the sentence, while in others, the
Subjunctive and Indicative express different meanings. In many other
cases, both moods are possible and the difference between them is one of
nuance or register.
It is impossible to give a definition of the Subjunctive that covers all its
various uses. However, there are some features that account for the
majority of uses and will help the student acquire a more confident
mastery of this mood. The Subjunctive is, in many ways, the opposite or
complement of the Indicative mood. Verbs in the Indicative usually make
statements and denials and ask questions about matters that are assumed to
relate to the world of reality. Verbs in the Subjunctive, on the other hand,
may refer to exactly the same events or facts but not to these events or
facts in themselves. They may be referred to as being part of the
background reason why something else happened (usually in a subordinate
clause); or they may be referred to as being presented from some particular
point of view, that of the speaker or someone else; or they may not be real
events or facts but rather wishes or imaginings on the part of the speaker.
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
402
30.1 The Subjunctive in main clauses
The many uses of the Subjunctive are grouped here according to the
grammatical structure in which they occur and according to the meaning
of those structures. Cases where the choice between Indicative and
Subjunctive expresses different meanings are explained in full. Alternatives
to the Subjunctive – especially the use of the infinitive – are also
indicated.
30.1 The Subjunctive in main clauses
The Subjunctive is used in main clauses to express wishes, commands, and
incredulous questions.
30.1.1 Wishes
Dio vi benedica!
(May) God bless you!
(Che) possiate avere tutto il successo che meritate!
May you have all the success you deserve!
Vinca il migliore!
May the best one win!
(Se) vedessi che roba!
If you could only see what it is!
(Magari) non l’avessi mai detto!
If only I had never said it!
30.1.2 Third person imperative
The subjunctive is used as the imperative with the Lei and Loro form of
address, though Loro is rapidly being replaced by voi in modern Italian
(cf. section 16.5), e.g.:
Dottoressa Rossi, venga (pure), s’accomodi!
(Please) come in, Ms Rossi, take a seat!
Dottori, vengano (pure), s’accomodino! (R3) = Venite,
accomodatevi!
(Please) come in, take a seat!
30.1.3 Third person exhortations
The subjunctive is also used in exhortations said of a third person,
including generic or impersonal subjects, e.g.:
Se non sono convinti, lo dicano!
If they are not convinced, let them say so!
Chi non ha ancora comprato il libro, venga avanti!
All those who have not yet bought the book, come to the front!
Che non si ripeta!
Let it not be repeated!
403
30 The Subjunctive
Costi quel che costi!
Whatever it costs!
30.1.4 Questions
The Subjunctive expresses surprise or scepticism, e.g.:
Che sia finito?
Is it over (I wonder)?
Che fosse geloso?
Could it be that he was jealous?
30.2 The Subjunctive in noun clauses
The Subjunctive may be used in noun clauses, depending on the meaning
of the main clause. This meaning may be expressed in a verb or verbal
expression or some other component of the main clause. This occurs with
both subject and object noun clauses. In many cases, these noun clauses
are replaced by di + infinitive when the subjects of the two clauses are the
same, e.g.:
Temo che tu l’abbia offeso.
I am afraid you have offended him.
Temo di averlo offeso.
I am afraid I have offended him.
30.2.1 With main clauses expressing emotion
The Subjunctive is used after main clauses expressing emotion, regardless
of the truth or otherwise of the subordinate clause. If the two subjects are
the same, an infinitive is used, preceded by di.
(i) Verbs/expressions
essere contento/scontento che to be pleased/displeased
that
essere felice/infelice che to be happy/unhappy that
essere deluso che to be disappointed that
essere sorpreso/stupito che to be surprised that
aver paura che to be afraid that
meravigliarsi che to be amazed that
rammaricarsi che to regret that
dispiacere, rincrescere che to be sorry that
mi dispiace/rincresce che . . . I am sorry that
stupirsi che to be surprised that
temere che to fear that
(ii) Expressions
meno male che (Indicative in R1–2) just as well that
che peccato che what a pity that
404
30.2 The Subjunctive in noun clauses
30.2.2 With main clauses expressing opinion, doubt,
uncertainty, or certainty
(a) With verbs and expressions of opinion and belief
The Subjunctive is usual, though the Indicative is often used in casual
speech. The Subjunctive is even more likely to be used if the verbs are in
the negative.
ammettere che to suppose that
credere che to believe that
desumere che (R3) to infer that
essere certo/sicuro che to be sure/certain that
essere convinto che to be convinced that
immaginar(si) che to imagine that
intuire che to intuit that
pensare che to think that
ritenere che to maintain that
sembrare to seem that
mi sembra che it seems to me
sostenere che to claim that
supporre che to suppose that
note Statements of religious belief usually take the Indicative, but in the
negative take the Subjunctive, e.g.:
Credo che Dio esiste.
I believe that God exists.
Non credo che Dio esista.
I do not believe that God exists.
(b) With verbs and expressions of certainty and conviction
The Subjunctive is used with such expressions in the negative and
interrogative, and in the affirmative is often used, in R3, when the subject
of the verb is the first person, e.g.:
Non sono convinto che la sua interpretazione sia giusta.
I am not convinced that her interpretation is right.
Sono convinto che volessero solo scherzare (R3).
I am convinced they only wanted to play a joke.
essere sicuro/certo che to be sure that
essere convinto che to be convinced that
non aver dubbi che to have no doubt that
30.2.3 With main clauses expressing knowing and understanding
The Subjunctive is often used in the negative, and especially with
reference to the past, e.g.:
Non sanno che Elena `e gi`a partita.
They don’t know that Elena has already left.
Non sapevano che Elena fosse gi`a partita.
They didn’t know that Elena had already left.
405
30 The Subjunctive
capire/comprendere che to understand that
rendersi conto che to realize that
sapere che to know that
With the following “negative” verb, the Subjunctive is always used:
ignorare che to be unaware that
note when capire and comprendere mean “quite understand” they
take the Subjunctive, even in the affirmative, e.g.:
Capisco che Matteo sia molto impegnato, ma non pu`o liberarsi
per almeno mezz’ora?
I perfectly appreciate that Matteo is very busy, but can’t he get away for
at least half an hour?
30.2.4 Saying
The Subjunctive may be used (especially in R3) after verbs of saying in the
negative, e.g.:
Il ministro non ha dichiarato che le sculture debbano essere
restituite.
The minister did not declare that the sculptures must be returned.
affermare che to state that
asserire che (R3) to assert that
dichiarare che to declare that
dire che to say that
With the following “negative” verbs of saying, the Subjunctive is always
used:
escludere che (R2–3) to refuse to admit that
negare che to deny that
rifiutare che to reject that
note With si dice, the Subjunctive expresses hearsay, while the
Indicative merely reports that something is being said:
Si dice che il ragazzo si sia messo con una brutta compagnia.
It is said that the boy has got into bad company.
30.2.5 Illusion, dream, and pretense
far finta/fingere che (R3) to pretend that
illudersi che to delude oneself that
immaginarsi che to imagine that
mettere il caso che to suppose that
sognare che to dream that
30.2.6 With main clauses expressing wanting
If the subjects of the two clauses are the same the verb in the subordinate
clause will be in the infinitive; if they are different the subjunctive is used,
e.g.:
406
30.2 The Subjunctive in noun clauses
Volete che vengano a trovarci?
Do you want them to come and see us?
Tommaso non vedeva l’ora che cominciassero le vacanze.
Tommaso couldn’t wait for the holidays to begin.
volere to want
desiderare to want
preferire to prefer
non vedere l’ora to be unable to wait (for)
30.2.7 Permission and prohibition
permettere che
or permettere a qu di + infinitive
to permit
evitare che to avoid
vietare che
or vietare a qu di + infinitive
to forbid
impedire che
or impedire a qu di + infinitive
to prevent
proibire che
or proibire a qu di + infinitive
to prohibit
30.2.8 With impersonal verbs
Most impersonal expressions require a following Subjunctive if followed
by a che clause. This construction is common when referring to a specific
person. When making general statements, or when it is clearly understood
who is being referred to, they often take an infinitive (cf. section 27.1). In
this case, all the verbs in the following list may be used with an indirect
object pronoun specifying the person concerned, with the exception of
bisogna and vale la pena, which are only used for general statements,
e.g.:
Conviene viaggiare in prima classe se uno se lo pu`o
permettere.
It is better to travel first class, if one can afford it.
Conviene che tu prenda il treno delle quattro (R2–3).
Ti conviene prendere il treno delle quattro (R1–2).
It is better for you to catch the four o’clock train.
Bisogna che tu dica qualcosa per spiegare le tue azioni.
You must say something to explain your actions.
Bisogna dire qualcosa (not ti bisogna dire qualcosa).
Something must be said, lit it is necessary to say something.
basta che it is enough that
bisogna che it is necessary that
conviene che it is opportune that
d`a fastidio che it gives annoyance that
dispiace che it gives displeasure that
407
30 The Subjunctive
mi dispiace che il lavoro
non sia pronto
I am sorry the work is not
ready
far piacere che it gives pleasure that
mi fa piacere che tu sia qui I am pleased that you are here
importa che it is of importance that
infastidisce che it gives annoyance that
occorre che it is necessary that
piace che it gives pleasure that
non mi piace che tu vada l`ı I don’t like your going there
pu`o darsi che maybe
rincresce che it gives sorrow that
secca che it gives annoyance that
sembra che it seems that
sorprende che it is surprising that
vale la pena che it is worthwhile that
Many expressions with essere + noun or adjective usually take the
Subjunctive after che, but may take an infinitive, especially where no
person is specified, e.g.:
`e (un) peccato che it is a pity that
`e ora/tempo che it is a time that
`e una vergogna che it is a disgrace that
`e necessario che it is necessary that
`e ridicolo che it is ridiculous that
`e vietato che it is forbidden that
`e possibile/impossibile che it is possible/impossible that
`e probabile/improbabile che it is probable/improbable that
`e facile/difficile che it is likely/unlikely that
`e utile/inutile che it is useful/useless that
`e naturale che it is natural that
`e inevitabile che it is inevitable that
Impersonal expressions expressing “evident” or “certain” usually take the
Indicative, but may take the Subjunctive in higher registers. The
Subjunctive is especially common in negative sentences (even when the
meaning is positive) and in questions, e.g.:
Ormai era ovvio che Elena fosse scappata (R3).
By now it was clear that Elena had run away.
Non `e vero che si mangi sempre meglio nei ristoranti di lusso.
It is not true that you always eat better in luxury restaurants.
Non c’`e dubbio che il colpevole sia lui.
There is no doubt that he is the guilty one.
Ma `e davvero cos`ı evidente che abbiano copiato?
Is it really so obvious that they cheated?
With impersonal verbs meaning “to happen,” the Subjunctive is more
likely if the “happening” verb is in the present or imperfect, less likely if it
is in a perfect tense, e.g.:
Spesso capitava che si trovassero soli ma senza niente da dirsi.
It often happened that they ended up alone but with nothing to say.
408
30.2 The Subjunctive in noun clauses
Capit`o che scambiai (or scambiassi) qualche parola con lui
durante una pausa dei lavori.
It so happened that I exchanged a few words with him during a break
in the job.
The expression non `e che or non che usually takes the subjunctive,
and is often followed by a second clause in the affirmative with the verb in
the indicative (cf. non perch´e, section 30.4.3), e.g.:
Non `e che il bambino sia cattivo, `e semplicemente vivace.
It’s not that the child is naughty, he’s just lively.
30.2.9 The verb aspettare
Aspettate che piova!
Wait until it rains!
Aspettate che piove!
Wait! It’s raining!
30.2.10 The position of the noun clause
When a noun clause is moved from its usual position for emphasis
(cf. section 18.2), whether it is subject or object of the verb, it requires
the Subjunctive in higher registers, e.g.:
Che fosse medico lo sapevamo gi`a.
Lo sapevamo gi`a, che fosse medico.
Cf. Sapevamo gi`a che era medico.
We already knew he was a doctor.
Che fosse medico si sapeva.
Cf. Si sapeva che era medico.
It was well known that he was a doctor.
30.2.11 il fatto che
A noun clause introduced by il fatto che is often in the Subjunctive,
especially if it comes before the main verb of the sentence, e.g.:
Il fatto che Giovanni sappia tutto non cambia niente.
The fact that Giovanni knows everything doesn’t change a thing.
30.2.12 come meaning che
The Subjunctive is used with come when it means “that” rather than
“how” (a usage typical of higher registers), e.g.:
Il ministro fece notare come governo e opposizione fossero
d’accordo sui principi di base della riforma.
Cf. Il ministro fece notare che governo e opposizione erano
d’accordo sui principi di base della riforma.
The Minister observed that the government and the opposition were in
agreement on the basic principles of the reform.
409
30 The Subjunctive
30.2.13 Modal attraction
The Subjunctive may be used in a noun clause which follows another
subordinate containing a Subjunctive. This is only usually found in higher
registers and should be imitated with caution, e.g.:
Se tu sapessi che io fossi in bisogno, mi aiuteresti?
If you knew I was in need, would you help me?
30.3 Indirect questions
The Subjunctive is used in higher registers, e.g.:
Gli chiesi se ci avesse pensato sopra.
I asked him if he had thought about it.
Non sappiamo se ci abbiano visti o meno.
We don’t know if they have seen us or not.
Le ho domandato dove avessero trovato le castagne.
I asked her where they had found the chestnuts.
Non `e chiaro che cosa abbia spinto il comune a comportarsi in
questa maniera.
It is not clear what led the Council to behave like this.
Non so che faccia abbia.
I don’t know what she looks like.
The Subjunctive is also frequent with quanto, e.g.:
Fece cos`ı per ricordare a Peppone quanto forti fossero le sue
mani (Guareschi).
He acted like that to remind Peppone how strong his hands were.
The Subjunctive is also used in higher registers for reported or indirect
commands, e.g.:
Rispose che venissi subito.
He answered that I should come immediately.
Gli fece cenno che si sedesse.
She gestured to him to sit down.
30.4 Subordinating conjunctions
With a large number of conjunctions, the Subjunctive is compulsory in
higher registers. In R1, some of these conjunctions are rarely heard, and
when they are they may be found with the Indicative.
30.4.1 although, however
Subjunctive after bench´e, sebbene, quantunque (R3), con tutto che
(R3); Indicative after anche se, e.g.:
Sebbene non possedesse un orologio, sembrava sapere sempre
l’ora esatta.
410
30.4 Subordinating conjunctions
Although he didn’t own a watch, he always seemed to know the right
time.
Subjunctive after per quanto meaning however, and with (per) + adj +
che:
Per quanto gridasse, nessuno l’ha sentito.
No matter how much he shouted, no one heard him.
Un vino Chianti, (per) cattivo che sia, `e sempre un piacere.
A Chianti wine, bad as it may be, is always a pleasure.
Subjunctive or Indicative after per quanto meaning “as far as,”
Indicative after per quel che, e.g.:
Per quanto ne sappia (R2–3)/ so (R1–2) io, non hanno
intenzione di vendere.
As far as I know, they have no intention of selling.
Per quanto mi riguarda/ per quel che mi riguarda . . .
As far as I am concerned . . .
Note this expression:
che io sappia
as far as I know
30.4.2 before
Subjunctive after prima che if subjects of the two clauses are different; if
they are the same, prima di + infinitive, e.g.:
Mi tradirai tre volte prima che il gallo canti.
You will deny me three times before the cock crows.
Ha letto il contratto prima di firmarlo.
He read the contract before he signed it/before signing it.
30.4.3 in order that, such that
Subjunctive after perch´e, affinch´e, tale che; in modo (tale) che, in
maniera (tale) che.
Indicative after perch´e meaning “because”. Subjunctive after non
perch´e.
If subjects of the two clauses are the same, per, al fine di, tale da, cos`ı
da, in modo (tale) da, all + infinitive, e.g.:
Parlo cos`ı perch´e gli studenti mi capiscano.
I’m speaking like this so the students (will) understand me.
Parlo cos`ı perch´e gli studenti lo preferiscono.
I’m speaking like this because the students prefer it.
Devi firmare qui, non perch´e io non mi fidi di te, ma perch´e `e
la legge.
You have to sign here, not because I don’t trust you, but because it is
the law.
Si comporta in maniera (tale) che tutti lo guardino.
He is behaving in such a way that everyone will look at him.
411
30 The Subjunctive
Si comporta in maniera (tale) che tutti lo guardano.
He is behaving in such a way that everyone is looking at him.
Si comporta in maniera (tale) da provocare uno scandalo.
He is behaving in such a way as to cause a scandal.
Verbs and expressions of making something happen also require the
Subjunctive, e.g.:
Il terremoto fece s`ı che il palazzo crollasse.
The earthquake led to the palace collapsing.
30.4.4 unless, except
Subjunctive after a meno che, salvo che, tranne che, eccetto che; if
subjects of the two clauses are the same, a meno di + infinitive (in both
cases the use of pleonastic non is typical of higher registers), e.g.:
Andate, allora, a meno che (non) abbiate cambiato idea di
nuovo.
Off you go, then, unless you’ve changed your minds again.
Non lo far ` o, a meno di (non) capire il perch´e.
I won’t do it, unless I understand the reason why.
30.4.5 until
Subjunctive after finch´e non meaning “until” in the past;
Indicative after finch´e non meaning “until” in the present or future;
Indicative after finch´e meaning “as long as,” e.g.:
Il dottore mi ordin `o riposo assoluto finch´e non mi fossi sentito
meglio.
The doctor ordered me to have total rest until I felt better.
Non uscirai finch´e non avrai lavato i piatti.
You’re not going out until you’ve washed the dishes.
Il dottore mi ordin `o riposo assoluto finch´e continuava il dolore.
The doctor ordered me to have total rest as long as the pain continued.
30.4.6 without
Subjunctive after senza che; if subjects of the two clauses are the same,
senza + infinitive, e.g.:
Usc`ı senza che nessuno la vedesse.
She went out without anyone seeing her.
Usc`ı senza salutare nesssuno.
She left without saying goodbye to anyone.
30.4.7 provided that
Subjunctive after purch´e, a patto che, a condizione che.
If subjects of the two clauses are the same, a patto di + infinitive, e.g.:
Lo far ` o, a patto che tu dia una mano.
I’ll do it, provided you give me a hand.
412
30.5 Relative clauses
Accetto, a patto di cominciare subito.
I accept, provided I start immediately.
Note this construction:
Andiamo a mangiare la pizza? Ma mi raccomando: una pizza
che sia una pizza!
Shall we go and have a pizza? Yes, but provided it’s a real pizza!
30.4.8 in case, in case that
Subjunctive after caso mai (usually Imperfect or Pluperfect); nel caso
che, per il caso che, qualora, e.g.:
Prendi un ombrello, caso mai piovesse.
Take an umbrella, (just) in case it rains/should rain.
Nel caso che tu non possa venire, avvertimi.
If (it happens that) you can’t come, let me know.
30.4.9 when
Subjunctive to express hypothetical situation (cf. section 31.1.2). Only in
higher registers, e.g.:
La notizia diffamatoria, pubblicata a mezzo stampa, pu`o non
costituire illecito quando prevalga l’interesse pubblico . . .
A defamatory news item, when published in the press, may not
constitute an offense, when the public interest prevails . . .
30.4.10 as if
Subjunctive after come se, quasi che (R2–3), come (R3), quasi (R3).
Only the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive are generally used
(cf. section 29.2.2), e.g.:
Ci tratta come se fossimo ragazzini.
He treats us as if we were kids.
Erano spaventati come se avessero visto un fantasma.
They were frightened as if they had seen a ghost.
“As if to” = come per + infinitive, e.g.:
Apr`ı la bocca come per parlare.
He opened his mouth as if to speak.
30.5 Relative clauses
30.5.1 After an indefinite antecedent
The Subjunctive accentuates the doubt that such a situation may in fact
exist:
Cercano un albergo che costi meno di 100 euro a notte (R2–3).
Cercano un albergo che costa meno di 100 euro a notte.
They are looking for a hotel that costs less than 100 euro a night.
413
30 The Subjunctive
The Indicative is used to refer to real situations:
Hanno trovato un albergo che costa meno di 100 euro a notte.
They have found a hotel that costs less than 100 euro a night.
30.5.2 After a negative or non-existent antecedent
The Subjunctive is required, especially in higher registers, e.g.:
Non c’`e nessuno che s’intenda di queste cose.
There is no one who understands this stuff.
Conoscete qualcuno che sia veramente felice?
Do you know anyone who is truly happy?
Una persona che passasse in macchina a quell’ora vedrebbe
tutto.
Someone (anyone) who drove by at that time would see everything.
30.5.3 After unique and superlative antecedents
The Subjunctive is required in higher registers, while the Indicative is
increasingly common in R1–2, e.g.:
Giuseppe `e il solo/l’unico che capisca la mia situazione.
Giuseppe is the only person who understands my situation.
Elena `e la persona pi `u affascinante che io abbia mai conosciuto.
Elena is the most fascinating person I have ever met.
30.5.4 Expressing a hypothesis (cf. section 31.1.2)
Un mondo in cui/dove tutti fossero uguali sarebbe il paradiso.
A world in which/where everybody was equal would be paradise.
30.5.5 “Modal attraction”
The Subjunctive may be used in a relative clause which follows another
subordinate containing a Subjunctive. This is usually found only in higher
registers and should be imitated with caution, e.g.:
Credo che vi siano poche persone che possano capirmi meglio
di voi.
I believe there are few people who can understand me better than you
[do].
30.6 Comparatives
The Subjunctive is used is comparative clauses, especially after certain
conjunctions of comparison (cf. section 17.3), e.g.:
Tommaso sa pi `u di quanto (non) mi abbia detto (R2–3)/ di
quanto mi ha detto.
Tommaso knows more than what he has said to me.
Sembrava pi `u vecchio che non fosse in realt`a (R3).
He looked older than he actually was.
414
30.7 Conditional sentences
30.7 Conditional sentences
The Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in the if-clause (the
“protasis”) of hypothetical conditional sentences when the conditional is
used in the main clause (cf. section 31.1.1), e.g.:
Se io parlassi quattro lingue, avrei avuto quel lavoro.
If I spoke four languages, I would have got that job.
Se tu mi avessi scritto quella lettera, io sarei gi`a in vacanza.
If you had written that letter for me, I would already be on holiday.
An if-clause may used alone, in certain expressions, when the main clause
is understood, e.g.:
Che emozione, manco avessi visto Maldini! (R1–2).
What a thrill, it was better than seeing Maldini! (lit [it would not have
better if ] I had seen Maldini).
415
31 Conditional sentences
Conditional sentences consist basically of an if-clause (or “protasis”) and a
main clause (or “apodosis”), although many variations are possible. It is
more common for the if-clause to come first, as in the examples below,
but in principle the two clauses may occur in either order. Conditional
sentences can be divided into hypothetical conditionals and factual
conditionals.
31.1 Hypothetical conditionals
These sentences express a hypothesis, consisting of a condition and a
consequence resulting from the fulfillment of that condition: “if x,
then y.” The choice of mood and tense of the verbs in the two clauses
reflects the degree of probability the speaker attaches to the likelihood that
the hypothesis may come true. The indicative emphasizes that the
hypothesis is in fact possible, while the subjunctive and conditional
highlights the speculative or unreal nature of the hypothesis.
31.1.1 Verb mood and tense
Indicative in both clauses
The present, future, and passato prossimo may be used to express a
hypothesis about present, future or past, e.g.:
Se compri il giornale, possiamo vedere cosa c’`e alla televisione.
If you buy the newspaper, we can see what’s on TV.
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
416
31.1 Hypothetical conditionals
Se domani ci sar`a (c’`e, R1–2) bel tempo, andremo (andiamo,
R1–2) al mare.
If it’s fine tomorrow, we’ll go to the beach.
Se Chiara non `e venuta all’appuntamento stamattina, allora `e
gi`a partita per le vacanze.
If Chiara didn’t keep the appointment this morning, then she has
already gone on holiday.
Subjunctive/conditional
(i) If-clause
imperfect subjunctive expresses a hypothesis about the present or
future, e.g.:
Se io non fossi cos`ı testardo . . .
If I weren’t so stubborn . . .
Se piovesse domani . . .
If it rained tomorrow . . .
Dovere may be used to underline the hypothetical nature of the clause,
especially R2–3, e.g.:
Se dovesse piovere domani . . .
If it were to rain tomorrow . . .
pluperfect subjunctive expresses a hypothesis about the past
(therefore usually something that can no longer be true), e.g.:
Se tu fossi stata qui . . .
If you had been here . . .
(ii) Main clause
present conditional expresses a consequence in the present or
future, e.g.:
. . . non mi troverei in questo pasticcio.
. . . I wouldn’t be in this mess.
past conditional expresses a consequence in the past, e.g.:
. . . avrei accettato l’invito
. . . I would have accepted the invitation.
These two pairs may be combined freely, according to the meaning, e.g.:
Se io non fossi cos`ı testardo, non mi troverei in questo
pasticcio.
If I weren’t so stubborn, I wouldn’t be in this mess.
Se io non fossi cos`ı testardo, avrei accettato l’invito.
If I weren’t so stubborn, I would have accepted the invitation.
Se tu fossi stata qui, non mi troverei in questo pasticcio.
If you had been here, I wouldn’t be in this mess.
Se tu fossi stata qui, avrei accettato l’invito.
If you had been here, I would have accepted the invitation.
In R1–2, the imperfect indicative may replace the pluperfect subjunctive
and/or the past conditional, e.g.:
Se (tu) eri qui, non accettavo l’invito.
If you had been here, I wouldn’t have accepted the invitation.
417
31 Conditional sentences
In very colloquial R1 speech, the imperfect indicative may replace the
imperfect subjunctive and/or present conditional. Dialect grammar rules
transferred to Italian may produce sentences with both clauses in the
subjunctive (especially in the South) or both in the conditional (especially
in the North and also in Tuscany). All these usages are considered
ungrammatical:
Se io non ero cos`ı testardo, non mi trovavo in questo pasticcio.
Se io non fossi cos`ı testardo, non mi trovassi in questo
pasticcio.
Se io non sarei cos`ı testardo, non mi troverei in questo
pasticcio.
The imperative may occur in the main clause, e.g.:
Se avessi bisogno di me, chiamami a casa.
If you should need me, ring me at home.
31.1.2 Other ways of saying “if”
The conjunction may simply be omitted (in R2–3). If the subject is
expressed, it follows the verb, e.g.:
Succedesse a me sarei rovinato (Pratolini).
Were it to happen to me, I would be ruined.
Me l’avesse detto lui, non l’avrei fatto.
Had he told me, I wouldn’t have done it.
Fosse entrato in campo Maldini, si sarebbe potuta rinsaldare la
difesa.
Had Maldini come on, the defence could have been consolidated.
With the same subject in the two clauses, an infinitive or gerund may be
used in certain cases. A present infinitive may be used with pur di, a
patto di, a condizione di, and with a, e.g.:
Pur di/A patto di/A condizione di ottenere un lavoro, mi
trasferirei in qualsiasi citt`a.
I would move to any city, provided I could get a job (just to get a job).
A pensarci bene, non avrei dovuto farlo.
Come to think of it, I shouldn’t have done it.
A gerund may also be used, e.g.:
Lavorando sodo, potresti ripagare il prestito in un anno.
By working hard (= If you worked hard), you could repay the loan in a
year.
Avresti imparato di pi `u leggendo i testi nell’originale.
You would have learned more by reading the texts in the original.
Studiando tanto, avresti potuto certamente superare
quell’esame.
If you had studied hard, you could certainly have passed that exam.
An adjective, adjectival phrase, or past participle may be used without a
verb, e.g.:
Di ruolo, avrebbe guadagnato di pi `u.
She would have earned more (if she had been) in a permanent position.
418
31.2 Factual conditionals
(Se) presa in tempo, la malattia `e curabile.
If caught in time, the disease can be treated.
Other conjunctions may be used, usually in R2–3, e.g.:
qualora (R2–3), quando (R3), ove (R3), laddove (R3);
ammesso che, supposto che, nell’ipotesi che, nell’eventualit`a
che (all R3) express greater improbability;
ammettiamo che, mettiamo (il caso) che, supponiamo che (all
R2–3);
purch´e, a patto che, a condizione che (all R2–3) express “provided
that.”
note the use of quando with the subjunctive to express “if and when,”
e.g.:
In base all’apertura dei Medici, Michelangelo avrebbe potuto
tornare quando avesse voluto (R3).
On the basis of the open attitude of the Medici, Michelangelo could
have returned if and when he wanted.
Relative clauses can also act as hypothetical conditionals. The verb in the
relative clause is in the subjunctive (cf. section 30.5.4), e.g.:
Uno che avesse obiettivi chiari, non perderebbe tempo cos`ı.
If someone had clear objectives, they wouldn’t waste time like that.
(= Anyone who had clear objectives wouldn’t waste time like that.)
31.2 Factual conditionals
In these sentences, the two clauses do not express a hypothetical situation,
but refer to some aspect of reality and establish a connexion between two
states or events. The indicative is usually used in both clauses.
With both clauses in the imperfect the sentence describes a habitual
event in the past, e.g.:
Se non avevamo i soldi per pagare, lavoravamo in cucina la
domenica.
If/When we didn’t have the money to pay, we would work in the
kitchen on Sundays.
With both clauses in the present or perfect, the sentence expresses two
ideas that are logically linked in some way. This rhetorical use of the
conditional construction is more common in Italian (especially R3) than
in English, and may be best rendered in English by some other type of
clause, e.g.:
Se la situazione internazionale `e preoccupante, quella
nazionale non `e certo tranquilla.
If the international situation is worrying, the domestic situation is
certainly not calm
or The international situation is worrying, but the domestic situation
is certainly not calm.
419
31 Conditional sentences
Se (`e vero che) Caravaggio rimase sempre debitore alla sua
formazione lombarda, tuttavia ebbe il maggior influsso sulla
pittura del Meridione (R3).
While (it is true that) Caravaggio always remained in debt to his
Lombard training, he had the greatest influence on painting in the
South.
note these colloquial usages, which have parallels in English:
Se hai sete, c’`e una birra nel frigo.
If you’re thirsty, there’s a beer in the fridge.
Se lui canta bene, io sono Pavarotti.
If he is a good singer, I’m Pavarotti.
420
32 Subordinate clauses
Subordinate clauses can be thought of in two categories. “Explicit” clauses
have the verb in a finite, conjugated form (this is normally what is meant
by the term “subordinate clause”). “Implicit” clauses have the verb in a
non-finite form: infinitive, gerund, or participle. Compare the following
sentences. The first contains an explicit subordinate clause, the second an
implicit clause:
Mi sono addormentato mentre guardavo la televisione.
I fell asleep while I was watching television.
Mi sono addormentato guardando la televisione.
I fell asleep watching television.
As these examples show, the same meaning can often be expressed by
either an implicit clause or an explicit clause. The difference is usually one
of register: implicit clauses are more common in higher registers and
particularly in writing.
32.1 Explicit subordinate clauses
Explicit subordinate clauses usually come after the main clause, although
in most instances the choice is free and a question of style or emphasis.
The following types of subordinate clauses tend to come before the main
clause:
(i) Temporal clauses
Quando lo vedr` o, gli racconter `o tutto.
When I see him, I will tell him everything.
(ii) Concessive clauses (expressing “although”: cf. section 30.1.4), e.g.:
Bench´e la scadenza sia gi`a passata, accetteremo la Sua
domanda.
Although the deadline has already passed, we will accept your
application.
(iii) If-clauses (cf. chapter 31), e.g.:
Se ci sei, batti un colpo!
If you’re there, knock!
(iv) Limitative clauses, e.g.:
Per quanto ne so, non c’`e un numero chiuso in questa Facolt`a.
As far as I know, there is no quota in this Faculty.
421
32 Subordinate clauses
(v) Note that clauses beginning with perch´e meaning “because” may only
follow the main clause (cf. the similar restriction on English “for”). A
“because” clause which comes before the main clause must begin with
some other conjunction, such as siccome, poich´e, giacch´e, e.g.:
Ho dovuto prendere un taxi perch´e non c’erano pi `u tram a
quell’ora.
I had to take a taxi because/for there were no more trams at that hour.
Siccome non c’erano pi `u tram a quell’ora, ho dovuto prendere
un taxi.
Because there were no more trams at that hour, I had to take a taxi.
32.1.1 Relative clauses
When the relative pronoun is the subject or direct object of its clause,
che is used. The relative pronoun is compulsory, unlike in English.
Compare:
Il computer che ho comprato ha un difetto.
The computer (that) I bought has a fault.
In R2–3 a form of il quale may be used in place of che, usually when it is
the subject of its clause. Il quale is used in a “descriptive” relative clause,
i.e. one that does not identify its antecedent but adds information to
something already known. It is also used to clarify potential ambiguity,
e.g.:
Ho discusso il problema con la signora Brambilla, la quale (or
che) ne `e rimasta entusiasta.
I discussed the problem with Mrs Brambilla, who was enthusiastic
about it.
Ho discusso il problema con la signora che abita al piano di
sopra.
I discussed the problem with the lady who lives upstairs.
L’amica di Matteo, la quale lavora in centro, ha avuto un
incidente.
Matteo’s girlfriend, who works in the city, has had an accident.
When the relative pronoun is the indirect object of its clause, the
preposition is used with cui or il quale (R2–3, also used to avoid
ambiguity), e.g.:
Ti voglio far vedere la casa davanti a cui/davanti alla quale
eravamo parcheggiati.
I want to show you the house we were parked in front of.
In higher registers, cui may be used to mean a cui, but not with
compound prepositions (e.g. davanti a cui cannot be replaced by
davanti cui), e.g.:
L’autore cui `e stato assegnato il premio dar`a una conferenza
stampa (R3).
The author to whom the prize has been awarded will give a press
conference.
422
32.1 Explicit subordinate clauses
Relative expressions of time and place may use a relative pronoun, or an
adverb, or che (this is becoming common for time but still frowned on for
place), e.g.:
Non dimenticher`o mai il giorno in cui/quando/che (R1–2) ti
ho conosciuto.
I will never forget the day I met you.
Non dimenticher`o mai il luogo in cui/dove (R1–2)/che (R1) ti
ho conosciuto.
I will never forget the place I met you.
In higher registers, the noun may be repeated together with the relative
pronoun, and the relative clause may be written as a separate sentence, e.g.:
Tommaso scrisse almeno quattro volte al direttore. Il quale
direttore gli aveva promesso di aiutarlo in qualche modo.
Tommaso wrote to the director at least four times. Who had promised
him help in some form.
In speech, a pronoun is sometimes used to refer back to the antecedent.
This may occur with a relative pronoun plus preposition (and may cause
some uncertainty even among educated speakers), or with che, which is
considered ungrammatical, e.g.:
E’ un tipo a cui gli piacciono le donne (R1–2).
E’ un tipo che gli piacciono le donne (R1).
He’s a type that women like.
Il che or cosa che are used to refer to an entire clause, e.g.:
Hanno telefonato pi `u volte per salutarti, il che vuol dire che ti
vogliono bene.
They have phoned several times to say hello, which means they are fond
of you.
Sono partiti di notte, cosa che non avevano mai fatto prima.
They left at night, something they had never done before.
“Whose” may be expressed in a variety of ways, e.g.:
Si tratta di una malattia i cui sintomi sono difficilissimi da
individuare.
Si tratta di una malattia i sintomi della quale sono difficilissimi
da individuare (R2–3).
Si tratta di una malattia della quale i sintomi sono difficilissimi
da individuare (R3).
This is a disease whose symptoms are very difficult to identify.
“What” may be expressed by quello che, quel che, ci `o che (R2–3), or
quanto (R2–3), e.g.:
Non ha voluto ripetere quello che/ci `o che/quanto aveva detto
ai giornalisti.
He declined to repeat what he had said to the journalists.
“Whoever” or “those who” may be expressed by chi, quelli che, coloro
che (R2–3), coloro i quali (R3), quanti (R2–3). Chi is very common
in proverbs, e.g.:
Chi tardi arriva male alloggia.
First come first served (lit S/he who is late finds bad lodgings).
423
32 Subordinate clauses
Il libro `e scritto per chi desidera conoscere meglio se
stesso/per quelli che desiderano conoscere meglio se stessi.
The book is written for those who wish to know themselves better.
Relative expressions with an infinitive require special care. When the
antecedent is the direct object of the infinitive, da is used (cf. section
27.4.1), e.g.:
E’ un libro da leggere/leggersi (R3) attentamente.
It is a book to be read, i.e. a book which one must read carefully.
If the antecedent is an indirect object, a relative pronoun (including
preposition) is used before the verb, e.g.:
Cerco qualcuno con cui giocare a tennis.
I’m looking for someone to play tennis with.
E’ una proposta su cui riflettere.
It’s a proposal to think about.
32.2 Implicit subordinate clauses
Implicit subordinate clauses almost always require the non-finite verb to
have the same subject as the main verb. Most exceptions to this are
restricted to R3 and are explained below.
32.2.1 Infinitive
In Italian the infinitive is used more widely than in English to replace
object clauses beginning with che, e.g.:
Credo di aver portato tutti i documenti richiesti.
I believe (that) I have brought all the required documents.
However, it is more restricted in only being used when the subjects of
both clauses are the same (see chapter 27). Compare:
Voglio che tu stia tranquillo.
I want you to be happy.
The following construction, with different subjects, is now restricted to
extremely formal styles:
Affermava infatti esser la famiglia, e in particolare la sua, la
maledizione dell’uomo (R3, Morante).
He claimed indeed that the family, and his in particular, was the curse
of mankind.
The infinitive is used with in and con plus the definite article (always
masculine singular) to form implicit subordinate clauses: in expresses a
contemporaneous action (equivalent to the gerund), e.g.:
Nel vederlo, gli ha gettato le braccia al collo. (= Vedendolo, . . .)
On seeing him, she flung her arms around his neck.
con is only usually found with verbs of beginning and ending, e.g.:
Cominci`o/Fin`ı col ringraziare tutti per essere venuti.
He started/ended up by thanking everyone for coming.
424
32.2 Implicit subordinate clauses
The infinitive is also used with other prepositions, but in modern Italian
this only occurs in a number of set phrases, most of which are expressions
of time, e.g.:
al sorgere del sole
at the rising of the sun
con il passar del tempo
with the passing of time
sul far del giorno/sul far della sera
at daybreak/at nightfall.
32.2.2 Gerund
The use of the present gerund (e.g. facendo, arrivando) is growing in
contemporary Italian, while the past gerund (avendo fatto, essendo
arrivato) is becoming restricted to higher registers.
Meanings of the gerund
The implicit gerund clause can express a number of meanings:
(i) temporal
If the time of the gerund verb precedes or includes the main verb, the
gerund usually comes before the main verb, e.g.:
Arrivando a Milano, mi recai a Piazza del Duomo.
On arriving in Milan, I went to Piazza del Duomo.
Passeggiando, Elena ha incontrato Tommaso.
While walking, Elena met Tommaso.
If the time of the gerund verb covers the same time period or one
subsequent to that of the main verb, the gerund usually comes after the
main verb, e.g.:
Emilia lo guard`o sorridendo.
Emilia looked at him (while) smiling.
L’auto ha sbandato violentemente, scontrandosi con un
camion.
The car skidded violently, crashing into a truck.
(ii) “Since” or “because”
This is the most common usage of the past gerund, e.g.:
Il magistrato, non avendo riscontrato prove concrete, chiuse
l’indagine.
The magistrate, having found no concrete evidence (= since he had
found . . .), closed the investigation.
(iii) “although”: the gerund is usually preceded by pur(e) or anche (R1–2),
e.g.:
Pur non essendo d’accordo, rispetter `o la decisione del
comitato.
Although I do not agree (with it), I shall respect the committee’s
decision.
(iv) “if”
Only the present gerund is used in this sense (cf. section 31.1.2), e.g.:
425
32 Subordinate clauses
Usando un tono pi `u rispettoso, avresti potuto ottenere quello
che cercavi.
By using a more respectful tone, you could have got what you were
looking for.
(v) “how”, e.g.:
Ha superato l’esame studiando giorno e notte per un mese
intero.
She passed the exam by studying night and day for a whole month.
Note that many of the English translations above have a preposition before
the verb in -ing, to specify the meaning, e.g. “on doing,” “while doing,”
“by doing,” etc. In modern Italian no preposition may ever be used before
a gerund. If a preposition is used to express a precise meaning, the verb
must be in the infinitive, e.g.:
Nell’entrare [= Entrando] nella stanza, Chiara ha capito
l’umore dei presenti.
On entering the room, Chiara understood the mood of those present.
Adverbs, however, may be used before a gerund, especially pur and
anche. See example (iii) above.
The subject of the verb in the gerund
The verb in the gerund usually takes as its subject the subject of the finite
verb on which it depends, but in certain cases it may refer to an indirect
object or to some other person clearly identifiable in the context, e.g.:
Mi `e successo sciando.
It happened to me while (I was) skiing.
Siamo rimasti in piedi davanti al bar. Chiacchierando del pi `u e
del meno, si fece notte.
We stood outside the bar. While we chatted about this and that, night
fell.
In higher registers, the gerund is sometimes used to refer to a direct object
of the finite verb, but this usage should be avoided by the student, e.g.:
Luis studi `o dai gesuiti: pur staccandosi dalla fede, il problema
religioso lo torment`o per tutta la vita (Messori).
Luis studied with the Jesuits: though he left the faith, the issue of
religion tormented him throughout his whole life.
The gerund is used in a number of set expressions, regardless of the
subject, e.g.:
e via dicendo, a Dio piacendo, tempo permettendo
and so on, God willing, weather permitting
In higher registers the gerund may be used with a different subject from
that of the finite verb. The subject is placed after the gerund, or after the
auxiliary with the past gerund, e.g.:
Avendo la testimone ritirato le dichiarazioni rese durante
l’istruttoria, la sentenza `e confermata.
Since the witness has withdrawn her statements made during the
enquiry, the decision is confirmed.
426
32.2 Implicit subordinate clauses
The position of the gerund in the sentence
A gerund may occur in virtually any place in the sentence. Gerunds
expressing “why,” “if,” or “although” often come at the beginning;
gerunds expressing “how” or “when” often come at the end of the
sentence. See above for the usual position of temporal gerunds according
to their meaning.
Gerunds are usually separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma
(representing a pause in speech), with one exception: when the gerund
comes at the end of the sentence and expresses “how” or “when,” no
comma is used. If it expresses other meanings, the comma tends to be
used. Note the punctuation in the following:
Sorridendo, Matteo si `e ritirato dall’esame.
Matteo si `e ritirato dall’esame sorridendo.
Matteo left the exam smiling.
Giudicandosi impreparato, Matteo si `e ritirato dall’esame.
Matteo si `e ritirato dall’esame, giudicandosi impreparato.
Matteo left the exam considering himself unprepared.
32.2.3 Participles
Present participle
The present participle is seldom used with a verbal meaning to join
clauses. In modern Italian it is usually found as an adjective or noun, with
little or no verbal force, e.g.:
importante, splendente; insegnante, dirigente, amante,
stampante
important, shining; teacher, manager, lover, computer printer
In very formal writing, however, the present participle is increasingly
being used as a verb, although it must agree, like an adjective, with the
noun to which it refers. This usage should be imitated only with great
caution, e.g.:
Due associazioni del settore hanno fatto ricorso contro le
decisioni del Consiglio dei Ministri approvanti una
convenzione tariffale relativa agli ospedali universitari (R3).
Two professional associations have appealed against the decisions by the
Cabinet approving (which approved) a fee agreement relating to
university hospitals.
The following type of usage is particularly restricted to bureaucratic and
formal language:
i componenti la commissione, i richiedenti asilo (R3)
the members of the commission (lit the persons making up the
commission); asylum seekers
Past participle
The past participle is also used as an adjective or noun, e.g.:
innamorato; laureato, sopravvissuto, significato
in love; graduate, survivor, meaning
427
32 Subordinate clauses
It is often used, without any auxiliary verb, to join clauses. Usually the
participle is associated with a noun in the main clause and thus acts as a
kind of implicit relative clause. The type of meaning of the participle
depends on the auxiliary the verb takes (cf. chapter 22):
(i) for transitive verbs, the past participle has a passive meaning, e.g.:
Ho ricevuto ieri una lettera speditami evidentemente da una
persona analfabeta.
Yesterday I received a letter obviously sent to me by an illiterate person.
(ii) for intransitive verbs which take essere, the past participle has an active
meaning, e.g.:
Ci sono i tuoi amici fuori, venuti apposta per salutarti.
Your friends are outside, who have come expressly to say hello.
(iii) intransitive verbs which take avere may not use the past participle in this
way. A past gerund or a finite verb must be used instead, e.g.:
Matteo torn`o a casa distrutto, avendo lavorato tutta la notte
(or poich´e aveva lavorato but not lavorato).
Matteo returned home exhausted, having worked all night.
In higher registers, the past participle may also be used as a separate, or
“absolute,” clause with a different subject from that of the finite clause.
The participle precedes its own subject and agrees with it, e.g.:
(Una volta) esaminata la situazione, il comitato prender`a una
decisione.
Once the situation has been examined (lit The situation having been
examined), the committee will make a decision.
Partiti gli ospiti, ci siamo messi a riordinare.
Once the guests had left (lit The guests having left), we started cleaning
up.
32.2.4 Nominalization
The use of a noun instead of a verb is typical of higher registers in most
languages. R2–3 Italian makes greater use of nominalization than English.
Elena cap`ı che era necessario prendere l’iniziativa.
Elena realized that it was necessary to take the initiative.
Elena cap`ı la necessit`a di prendere l’iniziativa (R2–3).
Elena realized the need to take the initiative.
32.2.5 Ways of translating words in “-ing”
Great care must be taken in translating English words ending in “-ing,”
since they may have a variety of meanings, whereas the Italian gerund is
very specific in its use. Words in “-ing” may be:
(i) a noun, corresponding in Italian to a noun or an infinitive used as a
masculine singular noun (with or without article), e.g.:
La lettura (or il leggere) stimola la fantasia del bambino.
Reading stimulates the child’s imagination.
Attraversare la strada nelle ore di punta pu`o essere pericoloso.
Crossing the road during peak hours can be dangerous.
428
32.2 Implicit subordinate clauses
(ii) an adjective, corresponding in Italian to a relative clause or present
participle, e.g.:
La ragazza che attraversava la strada era la sorella di Giuseppe.
The girl crossing the road was Giuseppe’s sister.
(iii) an adverb, corresponding in Italian to a gerund, e.g.:
E’ caduto attraversando la strada.
He fell while crossing the road.
(iv) a verb, corresponding in Italian to an infinitive, after verbs of perception,
e.g.:
Ho sentito Emilia cantare.
I heard Emilia singing.
429

TEXTS AND THEIR STRUCTURE

33 Interjections
Interjections are a feature of the more spontaneous registers of the
spoken language, the same registers where the influence of dialects is
strongest. Dialectal or regional interjections (and insults) are therefore
not uncommon in Italian. In Italian as in English, the use and choice
of interjections ultimately reflect personal taste and sensibility, with
“fashion” playing a big role in this very productive field of the living
language. Interjections can be “fashionable” one day and disappear the
next. The following is a list of some of the more common and
“established” Italian interjections: in order to avoid potential
embarrassment, the students should restrict their use to the R2
expressions (at least to begin with).
English pragmatic equivalents have been indicated in some cases as a
guide.
Some interjections appear more than once, under different labels. The
words are the same, the tone changes.
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
In some words, an
accent is used to
indicate the main stress
but should not be used
when writing. See
p. 29.
433
33 Interjections
Admiration R1∗ R1 R2
General cazzo! cacchio!
c`apperi!
cavolo!
c`aspita!
madonna! accidenti!
` ostia! (North) ` ostrega! (North-East) fantastico!
perbacco!
per` o!
amm`appete! (Rome)
ammazza(lo)! (Rome)
orca!
fr´egati!
Beauty fico! (Center, South) figo! (North) bello! bellissimo!
(note: unambiguously vulgar in the feminine) stupendo! che
bello!
(with agreement)
che meraviglia!
Excellence bravo! bravissimo!
(persons) (with agreement)
Agreement R1∗ R1 R2
= yes cazzo! come no! assolutamente!
certo!
perch´e no?
senz’altro!
= exactly ecco! giusto!
esatto!
appunto!
= OK OK [okεi] va bene
vabb`e d’accordo!
benissimo!
perfetto!
434
Interjections
Annoyance R1∗ R1 R2
General che (rottura di) (che) cavolo! (ma) insomma! come
palle! (esp boredom) far out! on!
(che) cazzo! cribbio!
minchia! (Sicily) crikey!
merda! mannaggia ((al)la
shit! fuck! miseria)!
li mortacci! per la miseria!
(Rome)
(porca) puttana! miseriaccia!
porca troia! blow! blast!
bloody hell!
(e) che di`amine!
(ma che) diavolo!
cristo! what the heck!
accidenti! blast! blimey!
santa pace! santa pazienza!
heavens above! for heavens’ sake!
uffa!
(also boredom)
porcaccia . . .!
porca l’oca! porca miseria!
porco cane/mondo/giuda! damn!
note: the English vulgar use of “bloody” or “fucking” to focus one’s annoyance at sth
or sb roughly corresponds to the use of the Italian expression del cazzo (R1∗) used after
the relevant term, e.g.: questo tempo del cazzo! (R1∗) = this fucking weather!
Directed at e d`ai!
persons e su!/e via! come on!
personal insults (with verbal/adjectival agreement)
(see also chapter 3, “stupid”)
stronzo! asino! maleducato!
(lit turd) arsehole! (lit donkey) you dunce! (lit impolite) how rude!
testa di cazzo! ignorante! you ignorant . . .!
(lit dickhead)
shithead!
vaffanculo! va’ al diavolo!
(pl andate
affanculo!) va’ a
dar via il culo! va’ a quel paese!
(North) fuck off! go to hell!
435
33 Interjections
Commiseration R1∗ R1 R2
ahim´e!
alas!
poveretto!
poverino!
poveraccio! (with
agreement) poor thing!
Disappointment R1∗ R1 R2
same as annoyance, (che) cavolo! (che) peccato!
different tone mannaggia! ma guarda!
Disbelief R1∗ R1 R2
ma dai!/ma va’! davvero?
come on! incredibile!
(e) gi`a!
non `e possibile!
(ironic) sure! non mi dire!
(ma) no!
Disgust R1∗ R1 R2
che schifo!
che schifezza!
che porcheria!
Encouragement R1∗ R1 R2
dai! (gen) avanti!
vai! (to one person) coraggio!
forza!
Joy R1∗ R1 R2
che bello!
evviva!
fantastico!
s`ı!
436
Interjections
Disagreement R1∗ R1 R2
No! never! col cazzo! manco per nemmeno per
manco per idea!/sogno! idea!/sogno!
cazzo! manco per niente!
(Rome)
ma va’!
col cavolo!
macch´e!
Not at all! per carit`a!
per (l’)amor del
cielo!
per niente!
niente affatto!
Enough! basta!
So what? emb`e? e allora?
regret R1∗ R1 R2
ahim´e!
alas!
(che) peccato!
(what) a pity!
surprise R1∗ R1 R2
same as annoyance c`aspita! mamma mia!
except che palle!, cavolo! perbacco!
different tone odd`ıo! santo cielo!
Warning R1∗ R1 R2
occhio! attenzione!
attento! (with agreement)
437
33 Interjections
Common ‘non-word’ interjections (R1–2 unless
differently indicated)
pain (= ouch!) ahi! [ai] (also repeated, [ai . . . ai·ai])
ohi! [ɔi] (also repeated)
ahia! [ajja]
ahio! [ajjo]
Doubt, ignorance boh? [bo] (R1)
(= who knows?) mah? [(m)ma] (R1)
Attracting attention ehi! [ei] (R1)
aho! [ao] (R1∗-1 Rome)
u`e! [wε] (R1 North)
438
34 Fillers
Pauses and gaps are characteristics of spoken language, born of the
necessity for the speaker to coordinate thoughts, find the right word, keep
the conversation alive etc. The expressions listed here are frequently used
to fill such gaps in spoken Italian, allowing the speaker to “keep the floor”
while thinking of what to say next. It should be noticed that both choice
and frequency in the use of these “fillers” depend more on personal taste
than on their literal meaning, which in these circumstances is often
irrelevant.
Italian expression English equivalent
Semantic Pragmatic
allora R1–2 then so . . .; well . . .
be’/b`eh R1–2 well well . . .
che dico R1–2 what am I saying I mean . . .
cio`e R1–2 that is I mean . . .
cio`e a dire R1–2 that is to say I mean . . .
come dire R1–2 how to say how shall I put it . . .
coso/cosa R1 thing (m/f ) thingamebob,
whatchacallit,
whatsisname
diciamo R1–2 let’s say let’s say . . .
diciamo cos`ı R1–2 let’s say so let’s say . . .
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
439
34 Fillers
Italian expression English equivalent
Semantic Pragmatic
dunque R1–2 therefore well . . .; now . . .
`e che R1–2 it’s that the thing is, . . .
(e) cos`ı R1–2 (and) so (and) so . . .
(`e) vero R1–2 (is it) true you know? . . .
ecco . . . R1 there it is (mid-sentence) you
know? . . .; (opener)
well . . .; also =
that’s exactly it!
(interjection)
eee . . ./
mmm . . .
R1 - er . . .
facciamo cos`ı R1–2 let’s do like this let’s do (like) this
facciamo una
cosa
R1 let’s do one
thing
let’s do this
guarda
(guardate)
R1–2 look look (here) . . .
il fatto `e che R1–2 the fact is that the fact is that; to tell
the truth
insomma R1–2 to sum it up so . . .
ma . . . R1 but er . . .
niente . . . R1 nothing well . . .; oh . . .
no? R1 isn’t it? you know? . . .
non `e che R1–2 it’s not that it’s not that
non so/saprei R1–2 I don’t/would’t
know
I don’t know . . .; how
shall I put it . . .
per cos`ı dire R2 so to speak so to speak; as it were
possiamo dire R1–2 we can say let’s say . . .
potremmo
dire
R1–2 we could say let’s say . . .
senti (sentite) R1–2 listen listen (here) . . .
se vogliamo R1–2 if we want let’s say . . .
vabb`e R1 OK well . . .
vedi (vedete) R1–2 see you see . . .
vediamo (un
po’)
R1–2 let’s see (a bit) let’s see . . .
voglio dire R1–2 I want to say, I
mean
I mean . . .
440
35 Connector words and expressions
The “connector words and expressions” sampled in this chapter are used
in both the spoken and the written language and have a cohesive function,
allowing the logical flow of sentences. They are therefore different from
the so called “fillers,” whose use can be defined as “pragmatic,” to do
with maintaining successful verbal interaction, and is characteristically
restricted to speech.
Adding allo stesso modo similarly
inoltre, per di pi `u also, besides
fra l’altro among other things, furthermore
Adding correlation non solo . . . ma anche . . . not only . . . but also . . .
Admitting anche se, sebbene even though
nonostante, malgrado in spite of
Confirming or reinforcing appunto, per l’appunto precisely
e infatti, in effetti indeed
ovviamente, certo che of course
anzi even more
Contrasting in effetti, in realt`a in fact
mentre while
ma, per`o, ma per`o (R1) but, however
tuttavia (R2–3) however
R1∗ vulgar or indecent
R1 informal,
colloquial
R2 neutral, unmarked
R3 formal, written
Italian words and
expressions are R2
unless otherwise
indicated. See also
p. 5.
441
35 Connector words and expressions
comunque, in ogni modo,
in ogni caso
anyway, at any rate
ciononostante nevertheless
d’altra parte, d’altro lato on the other hand
Contrasting correlation da una parte . . .
dall’altra . . . ; da un
lato . . . dall’altro . . .
on the one hand . . . on the
other . . .
ora . . . ora . . . now . . . now/then . . .
sometimes . . . sometimes . . .
Correcting al contrario on the contrary
anzi in fact, to be precise
invece instead
che dico (R2), mi correggo
(R2–3)
what am I saying, I mean (both
in spoken language)
Explaining il che vuol dire che . . . which means that . . .
cio`e that is
voglio dire (R1–2) I mean (spoken language)
Expressing purpose in modo/maniera tale che,
cos`ı che, cos`ı poi (R1)
so that
Introducing cause poich´e, dal momento che,
dato che, giacch´e (R2–3)
since (usu before stating the
effect)
perch´e because (after stating the effect)
Introducing effect e cos`ı, e allora (R1–2) and so
per cui (and) for this reason
di conseguenza consequently, as a consequence
dunque, perci `o, quindi
(R1–2), pertanto (R2–3)
therefore
Listing prima di tutto . . . poi . . .
infine . . .
first (of all) . . . then . . .
finally . . .
in primo luogo . . . in
secondo luogo . . . in terzo
luogo . . .
firstly . . . secondly . . .
thirdly . . . (etc.)
primo . . . secondo . . .
terzo . . . (R1–2)
first . . . second . . . third . . .
Stating alternatives (o) . . . o/oppure . . . (either) . . . or . . .
. . . altrimenti/senn`o
(R1) . . .
. . . otherwise/or else . . .
Summing up insomma, a/per farla breve to sum it all up, in short
tutto sommato all things considered
in fondo, dopotutto after all
442
Bibliography
Dictionaries
Il dizionario della lingua italiana, ed. T. De Mauro (Milan: Paravia, 2000).
Dizionario italiano Sabatino Coletti (Florence: Giunti, 1997).
Vocabolario della lingua italiana (Rome: Istituto dell’Enciclopedia Italiana, 1996).
Vocabolario della lingua italiana, 12th edition (Bologna: Zanichelli, 1997).
Italian grammars
Battaglia, S. and V. Pernicone, La grammatica italiana (Turin: Loescher, 1951).
Dardano, M. and P. Trifone, La nuova grammatica della lingua italiana (Bologna:
Zanichelli, 1997).
Grande grammatica italiana di consultazione (Bologna: Il Mulino) Cited as GGIC.
Vol 1: La frase. I sintagmi nominali e preposizionale, ed. L. Renzi, 1988.
Vol 2: I sintagmi verbale, aggettivale, avverbiale. La subordinazione, ed. L. Renzi
and G. Salvi, 1991.
Vol 3: Tipi di frasi, deissi, formazione delle parole, ed. L. Renzi, G. Salvi and
A. Cardinaletti, 2001.
Lepschy, G. C. and A. L. Lepschy, The Italian Language Today (London:
Hutchinson, 1977).
Maiden, M. and C. Robustelli, A Reference Grammar of Italian (London:
Routledge, 2000).
Serianni, L., Grammatica italiana (Turin: UTET, 1989).
Descriptions of contemporary variation in Italian
Bazzanella, C., Le facce del parlare: un approccio pragmatico all’italiano parlato
(Florence: La Nuova Italia, 1994).
Berretta, M. “Il parlato italiano contemporaneo.” In L. Serianni and
P. Trifone (eds.), Storia della lingua italiana, Volume 1 (Bari: Laterza, 1994).
Canepari, L., Italiano standard e pronunce regionali (Padua: Cleup, 1983).
De Mauro, T. et al. (eds.), Lessico di frequenza dell’italiano parlato (Milan: Etas
libri). (Cited as LIP.)
Lavino, C. and A. A. Sobrero (eds.), La lingua degli studenti universitari
(Florence: La Nuova Italia, 1991).
Sabatini, F., “L’italiano dell’uso medio: una realt`a tra le variet`a linguistiche
italiane.” In G. Holtus and E. Radtke (eds.), Gesprochenes Italienisch in
Geschichte und Gegenwart (T¨ubingen: Narr, 1985), pp. 154–184.
Sobrero, A. A. (ed.), Introduzione all’italiano contemporaneo (Bari: Laterza, 1992).
(Cited as IIC.)
443
Bibliography
The following works were consulted on specific themes (cross-referenced by
chapter number) and will be useful for those who wish to study particular
points in more depth.
1 Varieties of Italian
Pietrini, D., “‘X’ 6 :-(?’ Gli sms e il trionfo dell’informalit`a e della scrittura
ludica.” Italienisch, 46 (2001): 92–101.
16 Pronouns
Berretta, M., “I pronomi clitici nell’italiano parlato.” In G. Holtus and
E. Radtke (eds.), Gesprochenes Italienisch in Geschichte und Gegenwart, q.v.
22 Auxiliary verbs
Sorace, Antonella, “Gradients in auxiliary selection with intransitive verbs,”
Language 76 (2000): 859–890.
25 Prepositions
Skytte, Gunver, La sintassi dell’infinito nell’italiano moderno, Revue Romane
num´ero suppl´ementaire 27 (1983).
28 Use of tenses
Bertinetto, P. M., Tempo, aspetto e azione nel verbo italiano (Florence: Accademia
della Crusca, 1986).
Gambarara, D., “Il passato remoto nell’italiano parlato.” In T. De Mauro (ed.),
Come parlano gli italiani (Florence: La Nuova Italia, 1994), pp.183–194.
(Based on LIP.)
29 Sequence of tenses
Vanelli, L., “La concordanza dei Tempi.” In GGIC, i i .
30 Subjunctive
Schneider, S., Il congiuntivo tra modalit`a e subordinazione: uno studio sull’italiano
parlato (Rome: Carocci, 1999). (Based on LIP.)
Stewart, D., “The Italian subjunctive: tradition and innovation,” The Italianist
16 (1996): 234–304.
31 Conditional sentences
Mazzoleni, Marco, “Le frasi ipotetiche.” In GGIC, i i .
32 Subordination
Solarino, R., “Fra iconicit`a e paraipotassi: il gerundio nell’italiano
contemporaneo.” In B. Moretti et al. (eds.), Linee di tendenza dell’italiano
contemporaneo (Rome: Bulzoni, 1992), pp. 155–170.
Voghera, M., Sintassi e intonazione dell’italiano parlato (Bologna: Il Mulino,
1992). (Based on LIP.)
444
Italian word index
This Index includes all Italian words cited or discussed in the book. It covers all chapters
except those which list proper, technical or foreign terms, i.e. 7 Proper Names, 8 Geographical
Names, 9 Abbreviations and Acronyms, 10 Latin Expressions, 12 Numerals
and Telephone Conventions, and 13 Measurement.
a 321–325, 425
abbaiare 123
abbandonare 119
abbandonarsi 375
abbassare 71, 300
abbastanza 379
abbattere 100, 103, 137,
313
abbattersi 313
abbisognare 297
abbondare 304
abbreviare 100
abbuiare 298
abile 30, 376, 381
abitabile 34
abito 186
abituare 376
abituarsi 375
abituato 376
aborigeno 122
abortire 303
abusare 42, 388
acca 287
accadere 36, 297, 368
accalappiare 116
accampamento 32, 54
accendere 160
accennare 159, 369, 372,
382
accento 221, 224
accettare 90, 369
accettazione 52
accezione 52
acchiappare 116
-acchiare 173
-acchione 173
-acchiotto 171
acciaio 184
accidente 30
accidenti! 434, 435
accingersi 375
-accio 172
acciuffare 116
accoglienza 49
accogliere 72
accollare 109
accomodare 42, 131
accomodarsi 42
accomodata 131
accompagnare 149
accompagnato 175
acconsentire 90, 369
accontentarsi 370, 388
accorciare 100, 301
accordare 109
accordarsi 90
accordo 44, 90, 158, 382,
434
accorgersi 312, 370, 388
accorrere 303
accostare 313
accostarsi 313
accrescere 301
accrescersi 111
accrescimento 52
accrescitivo 223
accusare 42, 372
acqua 175, 182, 184, 185,
186
acquazzone 144
acuto 224
adattarsi 375
adatto 376
addetto 376
addirsi 90
additare 139
addormentare 313
addormentarsi 160, 313
addossare 109
addosso 180
adempiere 388
adiacenze 126
adirarsi 91
adorare 367
adulatore 36
adulterare 101
aereo da carico 40
affabile 33
affaccendato 376
affamare 159
affanculo (mandare –) 179
affascinante 94
affascinare 35, 365
affatto 286
niente – 437
affermare 133, 369, 406
afferrare 116
affettare 42, 100
affibbiare 109
affidare 109
affinch´e 411
affine 32
affiorare 296
affisso 129
affliggere 91
affogare 299
affondare 299
affrettarsi 117, 374
affrontare 33, 71
afrore 141
agenda 30
agente 128
– delle tasse 31
agevolare 114
agevolazione 45
aggettivo 222
aggiudicare 30, 73, 109
aggiungere 369
aggiustare 42, 131
aggiustata 131
aggrapparsi 116
aggravare 301
agguantare 116
agile 151
agitazione 32
agonia 30
agonizzare 31
ahi! 438
ahia! 438
ahim´e! 436, 437
ahio! 438
aho! 438
aia! 176
aiutare 114, 186, 376
ala 258
alcolico 42
alcolizzato 42, 52
alcuno 286
alieno 381
alimentare 158
all’improvviso 137
alla fine 34
allampanato 151
allargarsi 111
allegro 38, 40, 46
allenarsi 375
allenatore 40
allettante 94
allo stesso modo 441
allocco 146–147
alloggiare 31, 42, 187
allontanare 313
445
Italian word index
allontanarsi 119, 313
allora 439
e –? 437, 442
alloro 175
allunare 68, 160
allungarsi 111
altarino 175
alterare 42, 101
altero 130
altezzoso 130
alto 153, 281
altrettanto 272
altrimenti 442
altro 276
d’– lato 442
d’altra parte 442
altura 115
alzare 313
– il gomito 178
alzarsi 111, 313
amare 367
ambiente 52
`ambito 52, 86
amb`ıto 86
ameno 94
America 182
ammalare 301
ammalarsi 160
ammaliante 94
amm`appete 434
ammarare 68, 160
ammazzalo 434
ammesso che 419
ammettere 90, 133, 369,
405
ammettiamo che 419
amministrare 42
ammollare 73
ammonire 118, 382
ammuffire 296
amore 437
ampliarsi 111
ampolla 96
amputare 100
analizzare 105
anatra 123
anche 279, 425, 441
– se 410, 441
andarci matto 166
andare 291–292, 296, 309,
369, 374
– (a qu) 162
– a male 161
– via 119
andarsene 119, 166
angioletto 10
angolare 131
angolo 40
– d’incidenza 35
angoscia 30
anguria 11
anello 11
anima 75
– viva 180
animato 52
animo 75
animoso 52
annata 52
annegare 69, 299
annichilare 103
annichilire 103
annientare 103
anno 52, 85, 125
– sabbatico 117
annoiare 42, 313
annoiarsi 313
annoso 125
annottare 298
annunciare 118, 133,
369
annuncio 31, 129
ano 85
ansa 114
ansioso 373
antico 125
anticucina 40
anzi 35, 441, 442
anziano 125
apertura 116
apice 153
apogeo 153
apostrofo 224
apparecchiare 160
apparenza 52, 92
apparire 297
apparizione 52, 92
appartenere 303, 365
appassire 296
appellativo 121
appendiabiti 10
appendino 10
appioppare 109
appisolarsi 160
applicazione 42
appoggiare 114, 299
apprendere 382
apprestarsi 375
approdare 296
approfittare 160, 312
approfittarsi 312
approfondire 160, 387
appropriarsi 142, 388
approvare 74, 387
appuntamento 42
appunto 434, 441
prendere appunti 149
aprile 181
aprire 160
arabo 180
arca 79
archi 145
archibugio 112
archivio 260
arco 79
ardire 371
ardore 106
area circostante 126
-arellare 173
argomentazione 52
argomento 31
arguire 31
aria 92, 175
tromba d’- 144
arido 105
arma 79, 258
– da fuoco 112, 124
armo 79
aroma 141
arrabbiare 313
arrabbiarsi 91, 313
arraffare 142
arrampicarsi 98
arrapato 88
arrendersi 312
arricchire 301
arrivare 296, 374
arrogante 130
arrossare 53
arrossire 53, 296
arrostire 299
arrosto 177
arrugginire 301
arso 105
artefice 67
articolare 133
articolato 222
articolo 222
artificio 67
artiglieria 112
arto 119
ascendere 98
asciugare 301
asciutto 105, 151
ascoltare 387
asilo 49, 150
asino 123, 185, 435
aspettare 371, 382, 387,
409
aspettarsi 370
aspetto 92, 106
asportare 149
asporto 149
assaggiare 154
assaporare 53
assassinio 42
assatanato 88
asse 43
assegnare 109
assennato 38
asserire 133, 369, 406
assessore 31
assi 126
assistente 150
assistere 31, 114, 388
asso 175
assoggettare 102
assolutamente 434
assomigliare 388
assorbire 35
assordare 299
asta 143
astenersi 381
asterisco 224
astratto 222
-astro 172
astuto 42
atono 221
attaccapanni 10, 12
attaccare 374
attardarsi 375
attempato 125
attendente di volo 36, 40
attendere 31
attento 376, 437
attenuante 34
attenuare 34
attenzione 437
atterraggio 53
atterramento 53
atterrare 68, 299
atterrire 68
attico 31
attivit`a 140, 156
attivo 223
attizzatoio 41
atto 41, 376
attore comico 32
attraente 94
attrattiva 53
attraverso 294, 326
attrazione 53
attrezzature 45
attribuire 109
attuale 31
augurarsi 371
aumentare 111, 299
autoctono 122
automobile 32
446
Italian word index
autorizzare 376
avanti 331–332, 436
– negli anni 125
avanzamento 53
avanzare 162, 299
avanzata 53
avanzato (di et`a avanzata)
125
avanzo 53
– di galera 53
avariare 101
avarizia 42
avaro 36
avena 260
avercela con qu 165
averci 9, 166
avere 377, 383
– a che fare 161
– con s´e 149
averla con qu 165
avidit`a 42
avito 85
avvalersi 312
avvampare 296
avveduto 42
avvenente 94
avvenimento 36
avvenire 296, 297
avverbio 222
avvertimento 31
avvertire 118, 372
avviare 313
avviarsi 313
avvicinare 313
avvicinarsi 313
avvisare 118
avvisato 187
avviso 129
avvito 85
avvocato 126, 175
azienda 34
-azzo 172
azzuppare 11
babbeo 146–147, 148
babbo 11, 12
babbuccia 136
baccal`a 146–147
bacchetta 143
baccelli 11
Bacco 85
baco 85
bacucco 125
bada (tenere a –) 183
badarci 166
badare 31, 383
baffo 113
bagagli 259
bagagliaio 51
baggiano 146–147
bagnato 180, 184
baiocchi 120
balena 79
balenare 298
baleno 79
bal`ıa 86
b`alia 86
balla 79
ballo 79
in – 178
balordo 146–147, 148
balzare 296
bambino/-a 96
banale 38
banca 75
banchetto 45
banchina 140
banco 75, 134
banda 80
bandiera 143
bando 80, 129
bar 39
baracca 31, 175
barba 113
barbaro 281
barbone 11
barca 47, 95, 182
barra 39, 143, 225
barriera 108, 155
barrire 123
barrito 123
basamento 40
base 40
basette 113
basket 39
basta 437
bastare 162, 277, 297,
365, 383, 407
bastimento 95
bastoncino 143
bastone 143, 175
battaglia (cavallo di –) 176
nome di – 121
battello 95
battere 71, 102, 180, 186
– a macchina 71
battersela 165
battersi 71
battesimo (nome di –) 121
battuta 39
bau/bau-bau 123
baule 51
bavero 43
bazar 138
be’/b`eh 439
beb`e 96
becco 175
– di un quattrino 120
b`ee 123
belare 123
belato 123
bellino 11
bellissimo 94, 434
bello 46, 94, 165, 184,
279, 377
–/che –! 434, 436
ben nutrito 106
bench´e 410
bene (far –) 90
– in carne 106
benedire 175
benissimo 434
benzina 36, 107
beota 146–147, 148
bere 124, 184, 185
darla a – 165
berla 165
bersela 165
bestia 91, 175
andare in – 91
bevuta 124
bianco 184
di punto in – 88, 182
in – 175
in – e nero 175
biberon 96
biblioteca 35
bibliotecario 35
bicchiere 110
bietolone 146–147
bigiare 11
bilia 93
bigliettaio 33
bilancia 76, 260
bilancio 76
biglia 93
biliardino 40
bimbo/-a 96
binocolo 110
bisbigl`ıo 86
bisb`ıglio 86
bischero 146–147
bisdrucciolo 221
bisognare 297, 365, 407
bisogno (avere –) 159, 371
bisticcio 37
bisturi 38
bisunto 104
blaterare 133
boa 252
bocca 175, 186, 289
boccaccia (fare una –) 106
boccale 110
boccata 53, 120
boccetta 96
boccia 93
boccino 93
boccone 53, 120
body 39
boh? 438
bollare 53
bolletta 182
bollire 53
bomba 43, 80, 124
tornare a – 175
bombo 80
bordare 31
bordo 43, 140
a – 43
borgata 126
borioso 130
borraccia 96
borseggiare 142
botta 76, 124
botte (f pl) 84, 175, 259
botte (f s) 84, 176, 183
b´otte/b`otte 84
bottega 138
bottegaio/-a 138
bottiglia 96
bottiglione 96
botto 76, 124
bouquet 141
box 40
bozza 76
bozzo 76
braccio 175, 253
brace 180
bramare 367
bramire 123
bramito 123
branca 80
branco 80
bravissimo 434
bravo 31, 46, 377, 381,
434
breccia 116, 132
breve (per farla –) 442
brevetto 36
briciola 76
briciolo 76
bronzo 177
bruciapelo (a –) 88, 175
bruciare 299
– le tappe
brutto 165, 184, 279
buca 76, 116
buco 76, 116
447
Italian word index
budello 253
bue 176, 183, 185, 258
bufera 144
bulbo oculare 93
bum 124
buon giorno 58
buono 46, 184, 281, 376
burattini 175
burbanzoso 130
burocrate 135
burrasca 144
bussare 124
bussola 43, 181
busta 67, 80
bustarella 67
bustina 67
busto 80
buttare 152
– gi`u 103
buttarsi 374
cabina per la doccia 40
cacchio 434
caccia 252
andare a – 137
cacciare 71, 137
cacio 11, 185
cadde 85
cade 85
cadente 33
cadere 33, 71, 124, 296
lasciare/fare – 158
caduta 124
caff `e 39
cagna 123
ca`ı/ca`ı–ca`ı 123
calamit`a 86, 89
calam`ıta 86
calare 68, 299, 301
calcagno 114, 253
calcestruzzo 33
calciare 159
calcio 103, 114, 159
– dangolo 40
scarpa da – 136
calcolatore 76
calcolatrice 76
calcolo 132
caldo 53
calende 176
calice 110
calorico 53
calorifero 53
calorifico 53
caloroso 53
caloscia 136
calpestare 387
calzatura 136
calze 126
calzoni 126
cambiamento 53
cambiare 42, 71, 300
cambio 53
camera 31
camerata 252
cameriere/-a 135
camicia 176, 179
camino 85
camminare 294, 295
cammino 85, 127
campana 124, 184
campanello 124
campare 297
campeggio 32, 40, 54
camping 40, 54
campo 32, 54
– di concentramento 56
canarini 126
cancellata 108
cancelletto 224
cancelliere 43
cancello 108
candelotto 143
cane 123, 176, 180, 184,
185
freddo – 177
porco – 435
canestro 39, 137
canna 67, 143
cannella 67
cannone 67, 68, 112
cannuccia 67
canoa 95
canone 68
canonica 76
canonico 68, 76
canotto 95
cantante 54
cantare 123, 185
cantautore 54
canticchiare 170
canto 54, 123
cantore 54
canzone 54
capace 30, 373
capelli 113, 176, 259
capello 113, 176, 177
capigliatura 113
capire 406
fare – 35
capitale 120, 252
capitare 162, 297, 368
capitolo 183
capitombolo 124
capo 166–167, 176
a – 225
andare a – 225
capo d’istituto 150
capopagina 153
capote 153
capoverso 225
cappa 252
capperi 434
cappotta 153
cappuccio 153
capra 123, 176
capriola 80
capriolo 80
captare 54
carabina 112
carabiniere 128
caramella 76
caramello 76
carattere 43
carbone 184
carburante 107
cargo 40
cariarsi 44
carica 76, 156
carico 40, 76
carino 11, 94
carit`a 108
per – 437
carnagione 32
carne 106, 176
caro 85, 281
carovana 145
carponi 294
carrello 54
carretta 43, 54
carriola 54
carro 32, 54, 85, 176
carrozza 54
carrozzella 54
carrozzina 54
carrozzone 54
carta 43, 176
cartella 80
cartello 43, 80, 129
cartellone 129
caruccio 11
casa 67, 80, 85, 184
faccende di – 156
casaccio (a –) 176
cascare 296
casello 108
caserma 31
casino 32, 67, 86, 182
casin`o 32, 86
caso 80, 107
fare – 159
in ogni – 442
per il – che 413
caso mai 413
caspita! 434, 437
cassa 40, 85
casseruola 32
cassetta 40, 76
cassetto 77
castigo 37
casuale 32
casualmente 32
catapulta 43
catastrofe 89
catena 145
catinella 181
catorcio 43
cattedratico 150
cattiveria 55
cattivit`a 55
cattivo 33, 279
catturare 54, 116
causa 161
cautela 32
cauzione 32
cava 32, 55
cavalcare 294
cavallo 123, 186
– di battaglia 176
cavarsela 165
caverna 32, 55
cavillare 37
cavit`a 116
cavo 145
cavolo 176
– /che –! 434, 435,
436, 437
col –! 437
un – 180, 287
cazzo/che – ! 434, 435
col –/manco per –! 437
del – 435
stare sul – 91, 183
testa di – 435
un – 287
cazzone 146–147
cedere 109
ceffone 11
celere 128
celerino 128
-cello 170
cemento 33, 55
cencio 11
cenno (fare un –) 159
centro 134
cera 77, 106, 176
cercare 154, 186, 371, 387
cerchia 77
448
Italian word index
cerchio 55, 77, 176
cero 77
certo 281, 373, 405–409,
434
– che 441
cervello 253
cervo 123
cessare 298, 371
cesto 39
cetriolo 32
che 9, 422–424
– dico 439, 442
cherosene 107
chi 423
chiacchierare 133
chiamare 376
chiappe 95
chiarire 301
chiaro 184
chiave (chiudere a –) 159
chicchirich`ı 123
chicco d’uva 260
chiedere 92, 372, 387,
388
china 115
chinare 58
chinarsi 59
chioccia 123
chiocciare 123
chiocciola 224
chioma 113
chiudere 72, 159, 160,
175
chiuso 141
ci 9, 166–167, 264, 266
ciabatta 136
cianciare 133
ciarlare 133
cicalare 133
ciccione 106
ciclone 144
cieco 184, 187
cielo 176, 186
per amor del –! 437
santo –! 437
cifra 46
ciglia 113
ciglio 113, 254
cima 153
cimento 55
cinepresa 31
cinghia 55
cinguettare 123
cinguettio 123
-cino 169
cinta 55
cintola 55
cintura 55, 126
– di castit`a 55
– di sicurezza 50–88
cinturino 55
cinturone 55
ci`o che 423
cio`e 439, 442
– a dire 439
ciononostante 442
ciottolo 132
cip/cip–cip 123
circo 55
circolare 295, 296
circolo 55
circostante (area –) 126
citrullo 146–147
cittadino 50
classe 46
clava 143
clavicola 43
clessidra 110
cloche 143
coadiuvare 114
coagulare 44
coccio 185, 186
coccod`e 123
cocktail 40
cocomero 11, 32
cocuzzolo 153
coda 145, 176
coerente 33
cogliere 72, 116
coglione 93, 146–147
coglioni (rompere i –) 182
stare sui – 183
cognato 32
cognome 121
colare 68, 72, 304
– a picco 181, 300
colerico 85
colf 135
colla 80
collaborare 114
collaboratrice familiare
135
collana 43
collare 43
collaudare 154
colle 115
college 32
collegio 32, 43
collerico 85
collettivo 222
colletto 43
collettore 43
collezionista 43
collina 115
collo 43, 80
colmo 153
colonna 145
colorato 55
colore 176
colorito 55
coloro che 423
colpa 80, 99
dare la – 158
farsi una – 161
colpevole 55, 373
colpo 38, 80, 176
colposo 55
c´olto/c`olto 84
coma 85
comandare 372
comando (barra di –) 143
comare 11, 12
combustibile 107
come 272, 409
come dire 439
come no 434
come per 413
come se 176, 401, 413
comico 32
cominciare 186, 298, 307,
374, 383
comma 85
commediante 32
commendatore 68
commentare 387
commentatore 68
commiserazione 38
commissione 156
commovente 377
commozione 32, 33
commuovere 47, 73
comodit`a 32
comodo 44, 176
compagno 134
comparativo 221
compare 11
comparire 297
comparizione 92
comparsa 92
compasso 43
compensare 387
compenso 127
competente 378
competenze 127
competizione 43, 98
compiacente 32
compiacenza 32
compiacersi 383
compiacimento 32
compiaciuto 30
compiere 56
compimento 55
compiti 259
comp`ıto 56, 86
c´ompito 86, 156
compiuto 56
complemento 55
complemento oggetto 223
complessione 32
complimento 55
comporre 74
composto 223
comprendere 406
comprendonio (duro di –)
146–147
comprensibile 56
comprensione 38
comprensivo 38, 43, 56
compromesso 43
comune 187, 222
comunicare 118
comunque 442
con 326–327, 424
– tutto che 410
concedere 109, 373
concentramento 56
concentrarsi 375
concentrazione 56
conciare 177
conciliare 49, 68, 72
concilio 68
concordare 44, 90
concorde 381
concorrenza 43, 98
fare – 158
concorrere 44, 303
– alle spese 30
concorso 98
concreto 33, 222
concussione 33
condannare 376
condizionale 223, 224
condizione 145
a – che/di 412, 418,
419
condizioni 259
essere in – di 176
conducente 56
condurre 149, 376
conduttore 33, 56
confabulare 133
confarsi 90
conferenza 35–42, 44, 133
conferire 109
confessare 133, 369
confidenza 44
confortevole 44
confrontare 33, 71
449
Italian word index
confrontarsi 33
confronto (mettere a –) 33
confusione 32
congedo 117
congelare 44, 73
congelarsi 44
congiuntivo 223, 224
congiunto 32
congiunzione 222
congratularsi 312, 388
congresso 44
conoscente 56
conoscenze 259
conoscere 118, 395
conoscitore 56
conquibus 120
conquistare 102
consapevole 368
consegnare 109
conseguenza (di –) 442
conseguire 75
consentire 44, 369, 383
conservante 36
conservare 48, 72
considerare 37
considerevole 50
consigliare 68, 372
consiglio 68
– di amministrazione 43
consistente 33, 50, 382
consistere 297, 381
consonante 223
contadino 36
contanti 120, 259
contarci 166
contare 72, 370
contento 33, 184, 373,
404
contenuto 33
continuare 298, 374
conto 176
tenere – 161
fare i conti 176
contrario (al –) 442
contrattare 158
contrattempo 89
contravvenire 388
contravvenzione 99
contribuire 375
contro 327–328
controcorrente 177
controllare 44, 105
convegno 44
convenire 90, 163, 304,
365, 384, 407
convenzione 44
conversare 133
convincere 376
convivere 299
convinto 405
cooperare 114
coperchio 153
copia 85
coppia 85, 110, 126
coprire di insulti 121
coraggio! 436
coraggioso 31, 378
corda 145, 186
cordiale 34, 40
cordicella 145
cordoncino 145
cordone 145
cornacchia 123
cornata 158
corner 40, 177
corna (con le –) 88
avere/mettere le – 177
fare le – 177
corno 88, 254
cornuto 88, 185
corpo 39
corpulento 106
correggere 131
correggo (mi –) 442
correre 72, 117, 302,
374
corresponsione 127
corrispondere 90
corrompere 101
corsa 77
corsivo 222, 225
corso 41, 77, 127
c´orso/c`orso 84
corteo 145
cortese 33
corvo 123
cosa 439
facciamo una – 440
– che 423
coscia 77, 119
– di pollo 143
coscienza 44
coscio 77, 119
cos`ı 272, 379
– che 442
– da 411
– poi 442
diciamo – 440
e – 440, 442
facciamo – 440
per – dire 440
coso 17, 439
costa 80, 115
costante 33
costare 297, 365
– un patrimonio 120
costipato 44
costipazione 44
costo 80
costretto 377
costringere 376
cotto 176
cova 77
covo 77
cra cra 123
crac 124
crasso 33
creativo 56
creatore 56
creatura 44, 96
crederci 166
credere 370, 405
credersela 165
crema 44
crepa 116
crepaccio 116
crepare 296
crescenza 52
crescere 111, 300
crescita 52
cresta 153
cretino 146–147, 148
cribbio! 435
crimine 99
crine 113
criniera 113
cristallo 110
cristianit`a 44
cristo! 435
critica 77, 155
critico 77
croce 10
a occhio e – 180
crocetta 10
crociera 10
crollare 296
fare – 103
crosta (terrestre) 153
cruccia 10
crudele 45
crudo 176
cucco 184
cucinare 56
cucuzzolo 153
cuffia 182
cui 422
per – 442
culmine 153
culo 95, 107
avere – 107, 177
che –! 177
mandare affanculo 179
prendere per il – 178
va’ a dar via il –! 435
cuocere 56, 301
cuoia 254
tirare le – 177
cuoio 254
cuore 132, 186
cup`ıdo 86
c`upido 86
cupo 36
curatore 34
curioso 373
cuscinetto a sfera 93
d’accordo 44, 90, 158,
382, 434
da 309, 327, 328–331
– parte di 309
dai/ (e) –! 435, 436
dal momento che 442
danaro 120
danneggiare 101
dappertutto 140
dare 42, 109
– da mangiare 158
– nell’occhio 180
– retta 159
darla a bere/intendere 165
dati 259
dato (n) 259
dato (V) (essere –) 369
– che 442
davanti 331–332
davvero? 436
decade 33
decadere 44, 71, 296
decennio 33
decente 44
decidere 30, 369, 384
decidersi 375, 384
deciso 377
declamare 133
declino (in –) 30
declivio 115
decollare 119
decomporsi 44
decorrere 297, 303
decrepito 125
decrescere 296
deferire 45, 49, 73
deficiente 56, 146–147,
148
defluire 296
deformare 101
deforme 56
degenerare 296
450
Italian word index
degnarsi 160
degno 373
degustare 73
del luogo 122
delitto 99
delizioso 94
deludere 33
delusione 33
deluso 404
demolire 103
demonio 184
denaro 36, 120
– sporco 104
denotare 139
dente 152
denunciare 45, 161
denunziare 45
denutrito 151
deperito 151
deperire 296
depredare 142
deprimere 313
deprimersi 313
deragliare 296
deretano 95
derivare 300
derubare 74, 142
desiderare 367, 407
desistere 381
destare 313
destarsi 313
destinato 377
destino 107
destituito 33
destituzione 33
desumere 405
deteriorare 101
determinare 384
determinativo 222
deturpare 101
devastare 103
di 37, 332–334
– fatti 31
– fronte 331–332
dialetto 119
dialogare 133
diamine 435
diaria 127
diatesi 223
diavolo 177, 179, 185
che –! 435
l’avvocato del – 175
va’ al –! 435
dicci 85
diceria 38
dichiarare 35, 133, 369,
406
dici 85
diciamo (cos`ı) 439
didietro 93, 95
dietro (n) 93
dietro (prep) 290–291,
335
difensore 93
difettivo 45, 56
difettoso 45, 56
differire 45, 73
difficile 377
difficolt`a 382
diffidare 381
difforme 56
diffusamente 87
dilapidare 33
dilapidato 33
dilatarsi 111
diluvio 144
dimagrire 300
dimenticare 314, 370
dimenticarsi 314, 370
diminuire 300
diminutivo 223
dimissioni 259
dimostrare 34, 139
dimostrativo 222
din don 124
dinamite 143
dinanzi 331
dindi 120
dinnanzi 331
dintorni 126
dio 258
Dio 181, 186
dipendente 222
dipendere 297, 388
dire 133, 186, 369, 372,
406
mandare a – 376
direttore 33, 34, 150
dirla grossa 158
disapprovare 387
disastro 89
discendere 298
discesa 115
in – 88
disco 41, 47, 100
discordia (pomo della –)
181
discorrere 72, 133, 303
discorso 133
discussione 31
discutere 31, 133
disfare 103
disgrazia 33, 91
essere in – 33
disgustare 73
disidratato 105
disintegrare 103
disoccupazione 156
disonore 33
disperato 373
dispiacere 163, 297, 366,
404, 407
dispiaciuto 373
disponibile 377
disporre 384, 388
disposto 377
dissecare 100
disseccato 105
dissuadere 381
distare 160
distendersi 41
distensione 41
distinto 282
distruggere 103
disturbare 91
disturbo 91
dito 177, 254
ditta 34
dittongo 223
divampare 296
divenire 296
diventare 111, 296
diverso 282
divertirsi 375
divisa 120
divisorio 155
doccia (– scozzese) 177
cabina per la – 40
docente 150
documento 37, 41
doglie 47
dolce 282
dolere 186, 297
dolore 30
domanda 33, 42, 49, 92
domandare 33, 92, 368,
372, 387
domani 186
domestico (adj) 45, 156
domestico (n) 45, 135
donare 109, 186
donazione 108
donna (– delle pulizie) 135
– di servizio 135
dono 108
dopo 335
dopotutto
doppietta 112
dormire 177, 185, 186
dorso 93
dosso 115
dotare 109
dote 108
d´otto/d`otto 84
dottore 34
dovere (n) 157
dovere (V) 267, 306–307,
367, 397, 417
dovunque 140
drin/drindrin 124
dring/dring-dring 124
dubbio 405
dubitare 370, 388
due punti 224
duna 115
dunque 440, 442
durare 304
duro 184
– di comprendonio
146–147
e/`e 83
e commerciale 224
ebete 146–147, 148
eccellere 297
eccessivo 38
eccetto che 412
ecc`ı 124
eccitato 88
ecco 434, 440
echeggiare 298
editore 34
– del montaggio 34
educatore 150
educatrice 150
educazione 34
eee . . . 440
effettivamente 34
effettivo 34, 56
effetto 153
in effetti 35, 441
efficace 34, 56, 377
efficacemente 34
efficiente 56
effluvio 141
ehi! 438
elaborare 37
elargire 109
elargizione 108
elefante 123
elementare 150
elemosina 108
-ellare 173
-ello 170
elsa 114
emaciato 151
emanare 304
emb`e? 437
451
Italian word index
emergere 296
emigrare 302
emotivo 57
emozionante 57
emozione 45
emporio 138
energetico 57
energico 57
enfasi 45
enfatico 45
entrarci 167
entrare 296
entrata 108
entro 352
entusiasmare 366
epico 45
epigrafe 129
epitaffio 129
epopea 45
equilibrio 40
equivalere 297
-erellare 173
-erello 170
erta 115
erudito 50
esalazione 141
esaminare 105
esatto 434
esauriente 43
esaurientemente 88
eschimese 40
eschimo 40
esclamare 369
escludere 406
esempio 35
esemplare 36
esercente 138
esercitarsi 388
esercizio commerciale 138
esibire 139
esibizione 37, 45
esigente 34
esigere 33, 92
esile 151
esistere 297
esitante 377
esitare 375, 381
esito 34
eskimo 40
esondare 296
esortare 376
esoso 38
espandersi 111
espatriare 296
espletivo 45
esplodere 124, 300
esplosione 124
esporre 133, 139
esposizione 45
espressione 106
espresso 52
esprimere 39, 74
esprimersi 133
essere 297, 375, 381
– dietro a 10, 291
`e che 440
non `e che 286–288, 440
estendersi 111
estenuante 34
estenuare 34
esteso (per –) 87, 88
estorcere 142
et`a 125
-ettare 173
-etto 170
evadere 304
evaporare 304
evento 36
eventuale 34
eventualit`a (nell’ – che)
419
eventualmente 34
evidenza 34
evincere 34
evitare 371, 407
evolvere 296
evolversi 111
evviva! 436
fabbrica 34
faccenda 156
facchino 48
faccia 106, 140, 177
rompere/spaccare la –
179
facciamo cos`ı 440
facciamo una cosa 440
facciata 140
facile 34, 184, 377
facilit`a 45
facilitare 114
facilitazione 45
falciare 100
falla 77
fallare 57
fallire 45, 57, 303
fallo 77, 99
fal`o 106
fame 159, 184
famigerato 36, 57
familiare 45
famoso 57
fanciullo/-a 96
fango 68
fantasia 382
fantastico 434, 436
fantolino/-a 96
farcela 165, 182, 375
fare 123, 186, 384
– a meno 161
– in modo 161
far – 368
sul – del giorno/della
sera 425
farla finita 165
farla franca 165
farla grossa 165
farla lunga 165
farneticare 133
farsi le pere 137
fastidio 42, 91, 158, 366,
407
fastidioso 34
fatica 47, 156
faticare 11, 375
fato 107
fattezze 105
fatto (n) (il – che) 409
il – `e che 440
fatto (V) (venire –) 369
fatuo 130
fava 181
favella 119
favoriti 113
fede 11
fegato 177
felice 373
felicit`a 57
felicitazione 57
femminile 222
fendere 69, 100
fenditura 116
ferace 68
ferale 45
feriale 117
ferie 117
ferire 35, 137
ferita 35
fermare 313
fermarsi 313, 374
fermo 45
feroce 51, 68
ferro 177, 186
– di cavallo 136
toccare – 177
fertilizzare 158
fesso 146–147, 148
fessura 116
festa 45, 57, 117, 177
Buone Feste 259
festino 45
festivit`a 57, 117
festivo 46, 57, 117
festoso 46, 57
fetore 141
Fiamme gialle 128
fiancata 140
fianco 140
fiasca / fiaschetta 96
fiasco 43, 96
fiato 100
fica 80
fico 80, 94, 434
un – secco 166, 180,
287
fidarsela 165
fidarsi 388
fiero 130, 373
figlio/-a 96
figo 94, 434
figura 46
fila 80, 144, 177
filarsela 165, 177
filmare 137
filo 80, 145, 254
– da torcere 177
filone (fare –) 11
filosofale (pietra –) 132
filtrare 300
filza 145
finale (adj) 34
finale (n) 252
Finanza 128
finanziere 128
finch´e 412
fine (adj) 46
fine (n) 40, 252
al – di 411
alla – 34, 88
finestra 156
finestrino 156
fingere 37, 406
finire 298, 371, 384
finirla 165
finito 165, 223
fino 294, 336
finta (fare –) 37, 370, 406
fioccare 298
fionda 43
fiore (il fior –) 177
fiorire 296
firma 34
fischiettare 169
fisica 80
fisico 34, 80
fisionomia 106
flacone 96
flemma 46
452
Italian word index
flipper 40
florido 106
focaia (pietra –) 132
foglia 77, 185
foglio 77
folla 69
folle 69
fondamento 57, 254
fondare 69, 73
fondazione 57
fondello 178
fondere 69, 301
fondi 120
fondo 93, 134
in – 442
fondoschiena 95
fonologia 221
fontana 185
fonte 252
footing 40
forbici 126
forca 67
forchetta 67
forcina 67
forcone 67
forma 46
formaggio 11
formalit`a 32
formazione 30, 46
form`ıca 86
f `ormica 86
formicolio 260
formoso 94
fornire 109
foro 116
f ´oro/f `oro 84
foro di ventilazione 38
forte 184, 377
fortuna 107, 120
avere – 177
fortunale 144
fortunato 373
forza 436
forze 259
– dell’ordine 259
fossa 57, 77, 116
fossato 57
fosso 77
fotografare 137
fotografia 137
fotografico (macchina –)
31
fottersene 166
fra 345–346
– l’altro 441
fracassare 97
fracassarsi 97
fracasso 34
fragranza 141
franare 296
franco (farla franca) 165
frantumare 97
frantumarsi 97
frantumi (mandare in –) 97
frase 46, 50, 255
freddezza 57
freddo 57, 177, 184
freddura 57
fregare 142
fregarsene 166
fr´egati! 434
frequenza 35
fretta 117
frettoloso 187
friggere 179
frizione 46
frodare 142
fronte 252
di – a 331–332
frugoletto/-a 96
frutta 77
frutto 77
fucilare 137
fucile 112
fuggire 304
full 40
fumando 41
fumante 41
fumare 41, 185
fumo 177
fune 145
funerale 259
funerali 259
fungo 46, 68
funzionario 135
funzione 156
fuoco 106, 137, 176, 177,
179
fuori 336–337
– dai gangheri 178
– di s´e 178
buttare – 152
fuori bordo 43, 95
fuorigioco 140
fuoriuscire 296
furbo 178
furie 91
fuso 254
futile 38
futuro 223
futuro anteriore 223
gaffe 178
galleggiare 295
gallina 123, 178, 186
gallo 123, 187
galoscia 136
gamba 77, 119
gambo 77
gamma 252
ganascia 179
ganghero 178
gara 98
garage 40
garretto 145
garrire 123
garrito 123
garzone 96
gasolio 36, 107
gatta 178, 187
gattino 187
gatto 123, 178, 185, 186
gaudio 187
gelare 73, 298, 301
gelata 57, 78
gelato 78
gelo 57
gemelli 126
gemma 132
gendarme 128
genere 222
generi alimentari 138
genesi 252
geniale 34
genitore 36
gentile 34, 382
gente 260
gergo 119
gerundio 223
gesto 254
gettare 152
– la spugna 183
ghermire 116
ghiaccio 155, 184
ghiaia 132
ghiro 185
ghisa 128
gi`a 436
giacca 153
giacch´e 422, 442
giaccone 40
giacere 297
gil`e 39
ginnastica 136
ginocchio 145, 254
giocare 388
giocatore 153
giocherellare 169
gioco 178
in – 178
giornaliero 127
giornata 58, 127
giorno 58, 117, 187
giovane 96
giovanotto 96
giovare 90, 297, 388
gioviale 34
girare 137, 185, 300
giro 178
gironzolare 295
gi`u 342
giuda (porco –) 435
giudicare 30, 58, 73, 154
giudiziale 58
giudiziario 58
giungere 296, 374
giurare 369
giuridico 58
giustificare 38
giustiziare 58
giusto 434
gli 9, 263–264
globo 93
glu glu /glu-glu 124
glutei 95
gnocco 12
goal 40
goccia 78, 178
goccio 78
gocciolare 304
godere 371
godimento 382
gol 40, 137
golf 40
gomito 178
gomitolo 93
gonfalone 129
gonfiare 301, 313
gonfiarsi 111, 313
gonzo 146–147
gorghegg`ıo 86
gorgh´eggio 86
governante 58, 135
governatore 58
gracchiare 123
gracchio 123
gracidare 123
gracidio 123
gracile 151
gradevole 94
gradinata 134
gradire 367
grado 222
graffo 224
grafico 221
grammatica 187
grana 78, 120
granata 252
453
Italian word index
grande 35, 184, 282
grandinare 298
grandinata 144
grano 78
grassetto 225
grasso 184
grassoccio 106
grassottello 106
gratifica 127
grato 373
grattare 142
grave 224
grazia 176
grazioso 34, 94
gregge 69
greggio 69, 107
grido 254
groppa 80, 93
groppo 80
grosso 34, 35, 106, 184
dirla/farla grossa 165
grossolano 34
grotta 32
gruccia 10
grugnire 123
grugnito 123
grugno 30, 34
grullo 146–147
gruzzolo 120
guaire 123
guaito 123
guanti 126
guardare 387
guarda/guardate! 440
– /ma –! 436
guardaroba 40
guardarsi 160, 381
guardia 58, 128
Guardia di Finanza 128
guardiano 58
guarire 300
guastare 101, 313
guastarsi 313
guerriglia 34
guerrigliero 34
guidare 149, 294
gustare 73
gusto 187
hi ho/i-o 123
hinterland 126
ho/o 83
hockey 143
hostess 36, 40
i 182
-icchiare 173
-iccio 171
-icciolo 170
-icciuolo 170
-icello 170
-iciattolo 171
-icino 169
idea 437
idioma 46, 119
idiomatismo 46
idoneo 377
idiota 146–147, 148
idoneo 378
iella 11, 107
ieri sera 64
-igno 171
ignorante 46, 435
ignorare 46, 370, 406
il che 423
– vuol dire che . . . 442
illudere 33
illudersi 406
illusione 33
imbarcare 313
imbarcarsi 31, 313
imbarcazione 95
imbattersi 71, 312
imbecille 146–147, 148
imbestialirsi 91
imbiancare 300
imbianchire 300
imbrattato 104
imbronciato 36
imbrunire 301
immaginare 370, 405
immaginarsi 405, 406
immediatamente 37
immigrare 296
immondo 104
impadronirsi 116, 313
impallidire 296
imparare 375
impassibilit`a 382
impaurire 301
impaziente 373
impazzare 58
impazzire 58, 297
impedire 372, 407
impegnarsi 375
imperativo 223
imperfetto 223
impiccato 186
impiegato 135
impiego 156
implorare 92, 372
impolverato 104
imporre 372
importante 46
importare 163, 180, 297,
366, 408
importarsene 166
importunare 91
impossessarsi 116
impossibile 377
imprecazione 45
impresa 34
imprevisto 89
improvviso (all’–) 137
impugnare 116
impugnatura 114
imputridire 297
in 337–340, 424
– effetti 35, 441
– realt`a 441
inabitabile 34
inasprire 301
incacchiarsi 91
incallito 88
incantevole 94
incapace 373
incaricare 372
incaricato 373
incarico 109, 156
incavolarsi 91
incazzarsi 91
incendiare 387
incendio 106
incenerire 103
inchinare 58
inchinarsi 59
inchino 59
inciampare 295
fare – 159
incidente 30, 90
incidenza 35
incidere 100
incitare 376
inclinare 58
inclinarsi 59
incline 377
incombenza 156
incominciare 298, 374
incomodare 91
inconscio (adj) 46, 59
inconscio (n) 59
incontrare 312
incontrarsi 312
incontro 98
incoraggiare 376
incorrere 303
incosciente 46, 59
incredibile 436
incrinare 97
incrinarsi 97
incrudelire 305
incudine 178
indagare 105
indebolire 301
indecente 104
indefinito 222, 223
indennit`a 127
indeterminativo 222
indiano 177
indicare 139
indicativo 223
indicazione 129
indietreggiare 296
indietro (marcia –) 179
indigeno 122
indigente 33
indigenza 33
indignarsi 91
indipendente 222
indorare la pillola 181
indurre 376
inebriare 35
infangato 104
infante 96
infatti 35, 441
infelice 404
infelicit`a 35
inferiore 150, 364
inferire 69
infiammare 313
infiammarsi 313
infierire 69
infine 442
infinito 223
infischiarsene 166
influenzare 388
influire 42, 388
informale 32, 59
informare 118
informatica 59
informazione 59, 259
informazioni 259
informe 59
infortunio 89
infradito 136
infrangere 97
infrangersi 97
infrazione 99
infuriarsi 91
ingegnosit`a 35
ingelosire 301
ingenuit`a 35
ingiuria 35, 121
ingiuriare 35
inglese 177
ingrandire 300
ingrandirsi 111
ingrassare 111, 300
454
Italian word index
ingrassarsi 111
ingrossare 35, 111, 300
ingrossarsi 35, 111
inguine 34
iniziare 298
inizio 153
innamorati 126
innanzi 331
innervosire 91
-ino 169
inoltre 441
inosservanza 99
inquinamento 36
inquinato 104
insanguinato 104
insaporire 53
insegna 129
insegnante 150
insegnare 376
insensato 146–147, 148
inserviente 135
inserzione 31, 129
insistere 375, 384
insolazione 69
insomma 435, 440, 442
insorgere 296
insospettire 300
inspirare 73
insulso 146–147, 148
insultare 42, 121
insulto 121
intagliare 100
intelligente 146–147
intemperie 259
intendere 46, 385
darla a – 165
intendersela 165
intendersi 118
intentare 161
intento 377
intercorrere 303
interessamento 59
interessare 305, 366, 385
interessato 377
interesse 59, 259
interno 45
interrogare 92
interrogatorio 35, 59
interrogazione 35, 59
intervenire 46, 296
intimare 35
intimidire 300
intoppo 89
intossicare 35
intransitivo 223
introdurre 46
intuire 405
invalido 47
invecchiare 300
invecchiato 125
invece 442
investigare 105
investire 47
invidioso 35
invitare 376
invogliare 313
invogliarsi 313
inzuppare 11
ipermarket 138
ipermercato 138
ipotesi 419
irascibile 36
irascibilit`a 36
irritabile 36
irritabilit`a 36
irritare 91, 313
irritarsi 313
irritato 373
iscrizione 129
isolamento 69
ispezionare 105
ispirare 73
istanza 35
istituto universitario 32
istitutore 150
istitutrice 150
istruire 47
istruito 47
istruttore 150
istruttrice 150
istruzione 34
jeans 40
jolly 40
joystick 143
labbro 254
laburista 47
laccio 11, 145
laddove 419
ladro 128
lagnarsi 313, 369
lamentela 59
lamentarsi 369
lamento 59
lampeggiare 298
lancia 47, 81, 95
spezzare una – 178
lanciare 152
lancio 47, 81
– del disco 47
lapide 129, 132
largo 35
al – 87
alla larga 87
lasciare 119, 371, 378, 385
– in asso 175
lascivo 88
lastrico 182
lato 106, 140
da un – 140
d’altro – 442
da un – . . . dall’altro . . .
442
di – 140
latrare 123
latrato 123
lattante 96
lavanderia 40
lavarsene le mani 179
lavorare 11
lavoro 47, 156
legaccio 145
legare 73
leggiadro 94
legna 78
legno 78, 95
Lei 268–269, 403
lente (d’ingrandimento)
110
lenzuolo 255
leone 123
leopardo 123
lercio 104
lesione 35
letizia 382
lettera 225
letto 178
lettore 150
lettrice 150
lettura 35
letture 259
levare 149
lezione 35
lezzo 141
libero 38, 373
libert`a 87
libraio 35
libreria 35
libro 185
licenza 47, 117
lieto 373
lievitare 300
lima 81
limitarsi 160, 375
limitrofo (zona limitrofa)
126
limo 81
linea 178
lineamenti 105
lineetta 224
lingotto 39
lingua 59, 119, 181
– materna 122
linguaggio 59, 119
liquido 120
lira 120, 178
liscio 184
lite 31, 34
litigante 187
litigio 37
livello 153
locale 122
locandina 129
locazione 35
locuzione 46
lontano 187, 381
look 92
lordo 104
loro 267, 316
Loro 268–269, 403
loto 85
lotta 81
lotto 81, 85
lucci 85
luccicare 297
luce 178
luci 85
lumaca 184
lume 178
luminoso 129
lungi 381
lungo (prep) 294, 348
lungo (adj) (a –) 88
alla lunga 88
farla lunga 165
saperla lunga 165
tirarla per le lunghe 165
lunotto 156
luogo 122
– convenuto 38
in primo – 442
lupara 112
lupo 123, 185
lurido 104
lusso 35, 59
lussuoso 35, 59
lussuria 35, 59
lussurioso 35, 59
ma . . . 440
–/– per`o 441
– dai! 436
– guarda! 436
– insomma! 435
– no! 436
– va’! 437
macch´e! 437
455
Italian word index
macchia 178
macchiato 104
macchina 34
– da presa 31
– fotografica 31
macigno 132
macilento 151
madonna 434
della – 182
madrelingua 122
madrepatria 122
madrina 11
maestro 150, 382
magari 403
magazzino 138
maggiordomo 135
maggior parte 261
magico 143
maglia 39
maglione 40
magnifico 94
mah? 438
mai 187, 286
maiale 123, 184, 185
maiuscolo 225
male 187
andare a – 161
fare – 35, 158, 375, 388
maleducato 37, 435
malgrado 441
mamma mia 437
mammalucco 146–147
mancanza 159
mancarci 167
mancare 159, 163, 277,
305, 371, 385
– una rotella 182
manco 286, 415
– per cazzo/idea/
sogno/niente 437
mandare 376
– a quel paese 179, 435
manegg`ıo 86
man´eggio 86
manganello 143
mangiare 179, 180, 185
dare da – 158
mangiarsi le mani 179,
181
mangiucchiare 170
manica 81, 175
maniche 179
manico 81, 114
maniera (in – (tale) che)
411, 442
manifestare 34, 139
manifestazione 47
manifesto 129
maniglia 114
mannaggia! 435, 436
mano 179
dare una – 114
manodopera 47, 157
manovella 114
mansione 156
mantello 113
mantenere 38, 73
mantenimento 59
manubrio 114
manutenzione 59
marcare 59
marchiare 59
marcia 47
– indietro 179
mettere in – 47
marciapiede 36
marciare 69, 294, 295
marcire 44, 69, 297
mare 186
margine 140
marmocchio 96
marrone 35
– rossiccio 35
martello 178
maschile 222
massiccio 115
massima 178
massimo 153
masso 132
materia 50
materiale 47
materno 122
matta 40
mattina 59, 187
mattinata 59
mattino 59
matto 181
maturare 300
maturo 125
Matusalemme 184
mazza 81, 143
mazzetta 67
mazzo 67, 81
media 60
mass – 60
mediano 60
medicamento 47, 60
medicazione 47, 60
medicina 47, 60, 149
medico 34
medio 60, 150
medium 60
meglio 102, 154, 275
fare del proprio – 154
mellone 11
melone 11
membro 255
menare 149, 176
mendicante 11
meno (– male) 404
a – che/di 412
del pi`u e del – 180
fare a – 161
mensile 127
mensilit`a 127
menta 81
mente (venire in –) 36
mentecatto 146–147
mento 81
mentre 441
meraviglia 434
meravigliare 313
meravigliarsi 313, 404
meraviglioso 94
mercante 180
merce 32, 260
mercede 127
merda! 435
meritare 369
merlo 146–147
messa 69
messe 69
mestiere 156
meta 40, 87
met`a 87
meticoloso 34
metronotte 128
metterci 167
mettere 118
– al corrente 118
– alla prova 154
– in marcia 47
– in mostra 139
mettersi 374
– dalla parte di 161
– in testa 371
mettiamo (il caso) che
419
mezzo (adj) 88
mezzo (n) 260
mi 262
– correggo 442
miagolare 123
miagolio 123
miao 123
miasma 141
mica 8, 286
migliorare 300, 303
migliore 153, 275
migrare 296
miliare 132
milite 128
milizia 128
minacciare 371
minchia 435
minchione 146–147
mingherlino 151
minuscola 225
mirabile 94
mirare 375
miscela 40
miscuglio 40
miseria 35, 435
miseriaccia! 435
misero 36
misfatto 99
mister 40
mitra 112
mitragliatrice 112
mm . . . 440
mobile (adj) 47
mobile (n) 47
mocassino 136
moccioso/-a 96
moda 78
modo 78, 223
allo stesso – 441
fare in – 161
in – (tale) che 411,
442
in – da 411
in ogni – 442
modulo 46
moglie 183, 258
molestare 91
mollare 74, 109
moltiplicarsi 111
momento (dal – che)
442
monaca 11
monaco 186
mondo 179, 435
monello 96
moneta 36, 120
montagna 60, 115
montagnoso 60
montanaro 60
montano 60
montare 98, 298
montato 130
monte 60, 115
montone 123
montuoso 60
mora 78, 85
morale 252
morbido 36, 60, 260
morboso 36, 60
morfologia 221
456
Italian word index
morire 159, 186, 297
– dal ridere 381
moro 78
moroso 36
morra 85
morsa 78
morso 78, 120
mortacci! 435
mortaio 112
morte 184
mosca 179, 184
moschetto 112
mostra 45, 81
mettere in – 139
mostrare 139
mostro 81
mota 81
moto 81, 253
motocicletta 81
motorino d’avviamento 41
motoscafo 95
mozzare 100
mucca 123
muffa 141
muggire 123
muggito 123
mulattiera 127
mulinello 144
munizioni 260
muovere 47, 73, 301, 313
muoversi 47, 121, 313
muraglia 155
muraglione 155
muretto 155
muricciolo 155
muro 55, 155, 185, 255
muso 106, 179
mutande 126
mutare 300
mutilare 100
muto 184
muu 123
nafta 36, 107
narrare 133
nascere 176, 297
naso 178, 179
nastro adesivo 41
natale 122
natiche 95
natio 122
nativo 122
nave 95
– da carico 40
navetta 183
navigare 294, 295
nazionale 45
ne 264–265, 272
n´e 286
neanche 286
necessario 377
negare 69, 74, 369, 406
negoziante 138
negozio 138
nemmeno 286
– per idea/sogno 437
neon 129
neonato/-a 96
neppure 286
neretto 225
nero 175, 183, 184
nessuno 286
neve 144, 184
nevicare 298
nevicata 144
niente 9, 180, 286, 289
– . . . 440
– affatto 437
per – 437
nitrire 123
nitrito 123
no 284–285, 286–288
–? 440
come –! 434
ma –! 436
perch´e –? 434
nocci`olo 87
n`occiolo 87
noce 253
noia (dare –) 91
noialtri 262
nome 121, 222
nomignolo 121
nomina 42
nominativo 121
non 270–272, 285–288,
289, 412
– . . . che 284–285
– che 405–409
– `e che 286–288,
405–409, 440
– `e possibile 436
– mi dire! 436
– perch´e 411
– plus ultra 153
– so/saprei 440
– solo . . . ma anche . . .
441
nonno 86
nono 86
nonostante 441
nota 37
note 86
notificare 118
notorio 36
nottata 60
notte 60, 86, 175, 185
notturno 128
novella 67
nozze 260
nubifragio 144
nulla 176, 180, 187,
286
nullo 51
numero 46, 222
numeroso 282
nuocere 101, 187
nuotare 185, 294, 295
nuovo 282
– di zecca 180
nutrito 106
nuvola 180
o/ho 83
obbligare 376
obeso 106
obl`o 156
obolo 108
obsoleto 125
oca 123, 146–147, 181,
435
occhiali 50, 110, 126
occhiata (dare un’–) 38
occhio 180, 186, 437
non chiudere – 180,
289
saltare agli occhi 180
-occio 172
occorrenza 36
occorrere 36, 163, 303,
366, 408
occupato 377
occupazione 156
oddio! 437
odioso 35
odore 141
odorino 141
offendere 313
offendersi 313, 370
offerta 108
office 40
officina 66
offrire 109
oggetto 223
oggi 186
ogni (in – caso) 442
in – modo 442
-ognolo 172
ohi 438
OK 434
olezzo 141
-olino 169
olio 107, 178, 184
-olo 170
oltrepassare 74
omaggio 108
ometto 10
omicidio colposo 55
onda 60
ondata 60
-one 170, 172
onomastico 57
onorario 127
onorato 373
-onzolo 171
opera 156
operare 387
opportunit`a 47
oppure 442
ora (– di punta) 82
– . . . – . . . 442
`e – che 408
non vedere l’- 407
orario 127
orca 434
ordinare 372
ordinario 150
ordine 30
ore 126
orecchia 180
orecchio 180, 182
orfano 48
orgoglioso 130
orifizio 116
originale 61
originario 61, 122
oriundo 122
orologio 124
orribile 377
osare 367
osceno 104
ospitare 42
ospite 36
ossequioso 36
osso 180, 255
in carne ed ossa 176
pelle e ossa 151
oste/ostessa 36
ostentare 139
ostia 434
ostrega 434
ostrica 36
-ottare 173
-otto 171
ottuso 146–147, 148
ove 419
ovunque 140
ovviamente 441
457
Italian word index
pace 435
padella 180
padrino 11
padrona di casa 40
padrone 36
paesano 36
paese 36, 186
mandare a quel – 179,
435
paf/paffete 124
paffuto 106
paga 127
pagare 181, 186, 387
paio 126
pala 81, 86
palanche 120
palato 153
palazzo 48
palcoscenico 41
palesare 139
paletto 143
palla 86, 93
pallacanestro 39
palle (che (rottura di) –!)
435
rompere le – 91, 182
pallina 93
pallino 93
palloncino 93
pallone 93
pallottola 93
palma 78
palmo 78
palo 81, 143
pam/pamfete 124
panca 134
panchetto 134
panchina 134
panciotto 39
panciuto 106
pane 67, 97, 180, 184
panino 67
panna 44, 81
panno 81
pantalone 260
pantofola 136
pantomima 36
papa 48, 86, 87
pap`a 11, 87
pappa 86
para 87
par`a 87
parabrezza 156
parafulmine 33
paraggi 126
paragone 36, 132
paragrafo 225
parcella 127
parente 32, 36, 49
parentela 49
parentesi 224
parere 164, 297, 368
parete 140, 155
– rocciosa 36
pargolo/-a 96
parlarci 167
parlare (n) 119
parlare (V) 133, 180, 185,
371
parlarsi addosso 180
parlata 119
parlottare 169
parola 32, 119, 289
essere di – 181
prendere la – 133, 181
rimangiarsi la – data 182
parolaccia 45
parte 69, 330
da – 140
da una –.. dall’altra . . .
441, 442
d’altra – 442
la maggior – 261
mettersi dalla – di 161
schierarsi dalla – di 161
partecipare 118
participio 223
partire 119, 296
partita 81, 98
partito 47, 81
parto 69
pasci`a 185
pasqua 184
passata 12
passare 74, 155, 300, 305,
374
– per la mente/testa 369
– per le armi 137
col – del tempo 183,
425
passarla bella/brutta 165
passarsela 173
passato 223
passeggiare 294, 295
passione 106
passivo 223
passo 181
pasta 152
patapum/patapunfete 124
patatrac 124
patente 36, 47
patria 122
patrimonio (spendere
un –) 120
patt`ıno 87
p`attino 87
patto (a – che/di) 412,
418, 419
paura (avere –) 370, 383,
404
pavimento 36
pazienza 435
pazienza (perdere la –) 91
pazzo da legare 181
peccato 99, 184
–/che –! 404, 408, 436,
437
pecora 123
peculio 120
pecunia 120
pedagogo 150
peggio 185
peggiorare 300, 303
peggiorativo 223
pelle 181
– d’oca 181
– e ossa 151, 255
pelliccia 113
pelo 113, 181
per un – 181
peluria 113
pendenza 115
pendice 115
pendio 115
pendola 78
pendolo 78
pensarci 167
pensare 370, 385,
405
pensiero 108
pensionato 32
pensione 43, 48
pentirsi 313, 370
per 340–342, 348, 352,
411
– cos`ı dire 440
– cui 442
– di pi`u 441
– quanto 411
– quel che 411
pera 137
perbacco! 434
percepire 48
perch´e 411, 422, 442
– no? 434
non – 411
perci `o 442
percorrere 303
percorso 127
perdonare 388
perfetto 434
periferia 126
periodo 50, 222
– di tirocinio 41
perire 297
perito 31
perizoma 145
perla 145
perlustrare 105
permanere 297
permesso 117
permettere 373, 407
permettersi 371
pernottare 160
per`o 434, 441
perquisire 105
perseguire 48, 61, 75
perseguitare 61
persiana 11
persistere 297, 374
persona 224
di – 181
personaggio 43
personale (adj) 222
personale (n) 135, 150
persuadere 376
persuadersi 385
pertanto 442
pertica 143
pertinente 37
pertinenza 37
pertugio 116
perturbazione 144
pervenire 296
pesa 78
pesante 106
pesare 74, 300
p´esca/p`esca 84
pesca (canna da –) 143
pesce 184, 185, 186
– d’aprile 181
bastoncino di – 143
peso 78
peste 177
petrolio 36, 107
petulante 36
petulanza 36
pezza 11, 78
pezzente 11
pezzo 48, 78
– d’artiglieria 112
– di sopra 153
– forte 48
– grosso 48, 181
fare a pezzi 97
piacente 94
piacere 164, 277, 297,
366, 408
458
Italian word index
avere – 412
fare – 408
piacevole 94
piagnucolare 169
pialla 61
piana 61
pianella 136
pianeta 253
piangere 124, 185, 374,
387
piano (adj) 61, 187, 221
piano (n) 52, 61, 153
pianta 81
piantare 175
piantarla 165
pianto 81, 124
pianura 61
platano 61
picca 82
picche 38, 82
picchetto 143
picchiata 181
piccino/-a 96
piccione 181
picco 82, 115
colare a – 181, 300
piccolo/-a 96
piede 181, 183
piedipiatti 128
piegare 102
piegarsi 59
pieno 40
– di s´e 130
pietra 132
pietrisco 132
pigiama 260
pigliare 116, 186
pignolo 34
pigolare 123
pigolio 123
pillola (indorare la –)
181
pim/pam 124
pingue 106
pinna 40
pinza 260
pioggia 144
piolo 143
piombo 181
pio-pio 123
piovere 181, 298
pira 106
pirla 146–147
pirulino 11
pispolino 11
pista 127
pistola 112
pi`u 286
per di – 441
pizza 113
pizzardone 128
pizzicagnolo 16
pizzicarolo 16
placca 129
plurale 222
poco 289
– intelligente 146–147,
148
poema epico 45
poggio 115
poi 442
poich´e 422, 442
poker 41
polentone 13
poligono di tiro 137
polipo 61
politica 78
politico 78
polizia 128
poliziotto 128
pollo 143
polluzione 36
polpa 82
polpo 61, 82
polso 48
poltrona 134
polverizzare 103
polveroso 104
pomata 44
pomello 11, 114
pomo 114
– della discordia 181
ponte 117
pope 48
popone 11
poppante 96
porcaccia! 435
porcheria/che –! 436
porco 123
– cane/giuda/mondo!
435
porca l’oca/ miseria!
435
porca puttana/troia! 435
fare il – 176
porgere 109
porre 74
porta 40, 82, 108
portafinestra 156
portamento 92
portare 74, 142, 376
– via 149
porte 126
portento 48
portiere 11, 48
portinaio 11
porto 82
posate 260
posizione 35
possessivo 222
possiamo dire 440
possibile (fare il –) 154
non `e – 436
posta 82
le Poste 260
poster 129
posteriore 95
posto 35, 82, 134
– di lavoro 156
potare 100
potenza 61
potere (n) 61
potere (V) 267, 306–307,
367, 397
non – fare a meno 178
poterne (non – pi `u) 166,
370
potremmo dire 440
poveraccio! 436
poveretto! 436
poverino! 436
povero 33, 182, 282
povert`a 33
pozza 79
pozzo 79
pratica 187
precettore 150
precipitare 300
precipitarsi 117, 374
precipizio 36
precorrere 303
predisporre 376
preferire 367, 407
pregare 92, 372, 387
pregiudicare 73
pregiudicato 61
premere 74, 297
prendere 116, 149
– sul serio 182
prendersela 165
preoccuparsi 370
prepararsi 375
preparativo 48, 61
preparato 48, 61, 377
preparazione 48, 61
preposizione 69, 222
presa 31
presagio 48
presentare 46, 61, 139
presentazione 47
presente (n) 108
presente (adj) 161, 223
presenziare 31, 61
preservare 48, 72
preservativo 36
preside 150
presiedere 387
prestare 158
– soccorso 114
prestarsi 375
prestazione 156
prestito 158
presto (fare –) 117, 375
presuntuoso 88, 130
pretendere 33, 37, 92
pretenzioso 130
prevalere 297
prevaricare 37
prevenire 118
preziosa 132
prezzo 158
prima (di) 331–332
– che/di 411
– di tutto . . . 442
primato 41
primavera 186
primitivo 48
primo 378, 382, 403, 442
in – luogo . . . 442
principale 222
princ`ıpi 87
pr`ıncipi 87
principio 153
privo 51
– di sensi 46
proboscide 51
procedere 303, 305
procedimento 61
procedura 61
procella 144
processare 37, 154
processione 61, 145
processo 48, 61, 161
proclamare 133
prodigio 69
prodigo 38, 69
prodotto 32
prof 150
proferire 133
professione 156
– legale 39
professore 150
professoressa 150
profumo 141
profumare 304
profumino 141
progettare 371
programmare 376
459
Italian word index
progredire 303
progressi 260
proibire 373, 407
proiettare 152
proiettile 93
prolungarsi 111
promessa 182
promettere 369
pronome 222
pronto 37, 377
pronunciare 133
pronunciarsi 133
propaganda 48
propellente 107
proporre 371, 372
proposito 62
proposizione 48, 69, 222
proposta 48, 62
proprio 222, 282
prosciugare 301
prosciugato 105
proseguire 48, 75, 298,
303
prossimo 221, 377
protervo 130
protesta 144
prova 34
dare – 139
mettere alla – 154
provarci 167
provare 74, 154, 375
provenire 296
provvedere 48, 109
provvidenza 107
pseudonimo 121
pubblicazione 92
pubblicit`a 31
pubblicitario (cartellone –)
129
pubblico 51
pucciare 11
pugno 159
pulce 182
pulcino 123, 184
pulizia 135
punizione 37
punta 82
punti (due –) 224
puntini 182
– di sospensione 224
– puntini 224
punto 82, 224, 226, 286
– di vista 140
– e virgola 225
– esclamativo 225
– interrogativo 225
– vendita 138
a un – morto 182
di – in bianco 88, 182
pu`o darsi 408
pupilla 82
pupillo 82
pupo/-a 96
pur di 418
purch´e 412, 419
pure 425
puro 282
putiferio 182
puttana 435
puzza 141
puzzo 141
quadro 224
quale 422–423
qualificativo 222
qualora 413, 419
quando 413, 419
quanti 423
quanto 272, 410, 423
quantunque 410
quasi (che) 413
quattordicesima 127
quattrini 120
quattrino 120
quattro 41, 178, 179, 181,
183
quattrocchi (a –) 182
quel(lo) che 423
quelli che 423
querela 37
questione 49
questurino 128
quindi 442
rabberciare 131
rabberciata 131
raccogliere 72
raccomandare 372
racconciare 131
racconciata 131
raccontare 72, 133,
369
raddoppiare 300
radere 100
– al suolo 103
radersi 100
radio 62, 253
raffazzonare 131
raffazzonata 131
ragazzaccio 96
ragazzino/-a 96
ragazzo/-a 96
raggio 62
ragguagliare 118
ragione (avere –) 161
dare – 161, 182
ragliare 123
raglio 123
rallegrare 366
rallegrarsi 370
rammaricarsi 370, 404
rammendare 69, 131
rammentare 69
ramoscello 143
rana 123
randello 143
rapimento 62
rapina 62
rapinare 62, 142
rapire 37, 62, 142
rappezzare 131
rappezzata 131
rapporto 69
raro 184, 377
rasare 100
rasarsi 100
rasente 348
raspa 82
raspo 82
rassegnarsi 375
rasserenare 313
rasserenarsi 313
rassomigliare 297, 388
rattoppare 131
rattristare 313
rattristarsi 313
razza 82
razzia (fare –) 142
razziare 142
razzo 82
r´e/r`e 84
reale 31, 49
realizzare 370
realt`a (in –) 441
reato 99
reattore 49
recalcitrante 377
recapitare 109
recare 149
reception 49
recidere 100
recinto 40
reciprocamente 312
recita 37, 62
recital 37, 62
recitare 133
reclamare 92
r´eclame 129
record 37, 41
recupero 62
redattore 34
refe 145
regalare 109
regalo 108
reggersi 181
reggipetto 153
reggiseno 153
registrare 37, 49
regno 49
regola 79
regolo 79
relativo 222
relax 41
relazione 49
reliquia 62
relitto 62
remo 182
remoto 221
remunerazione 127
rendere 366
– conto 313
– noto 118
rendersi conto 313, 370,
406
reni 255
repentaglio 182
responsabile 373
resta 145
restare 297, 309, 375
– di sasso 131
restaurare 49, 131
restaurazione 62
restauro 62
resti 49
restio 49
resto 49, 120
rete 40, 137
reticente 49
ret`ına 87
r`etina 87
retrarre 63
retribuzione 37, 127
retro 93
retrocedere 300
retta (dare –) 159
rettificare 131
rettore 43, 150
reumatismi 260
revisione 49
revolver 112
riarso 105
riassumere 37
ribassare 71, 300
ribellarsi 313
ricadere 71
ricambiare 71
ricerca 260
ricerche 260
460
Italian word index
ricetta 62
ricettazione 62
ricevimento 49
ricezione 49
richiesta 33, 92
richiudere 72
ricognizione 37, 62
ricominciare 37, 374
ricomporre 74
riconciliare 49, 72
riconoscente 373
riconoscenza 37, 62
riconoscimento 62
ricoprire 37
ricordare 37, 314, 370,
388
ricordarsi 314, 370
ricordo 37
ricorrenza 35, 49, 117
ricorrere 49, 73, 303
– in giudizio 48
ricovero 62
ricuperare 37
ricupero 62
ridere 187, 374, 381
ridotto sul lastrico 182
ridurre 100
– in cattivo stato 33
riferire 49, 133
riferirsi 49
rifilare 109
rifiutare 371, 406
rifiutarsi 371
rifiuti 260
riflessivo 223
rifornire 158
rilasciare 62
rilassare 62
rilassarsi 41, 62
rilegare 73
rilevante 37
rilevanza 37
riluttante 49, 377
rima 182
rimandare 45, 49, 176
rimanere 131, 297, 309,
375
rimangiarsi 182
rimbalzare 296
rimbambito 146–147, 148
rimbombare 298
rimediare 69, 131
rimediata 131
rimproverare 372
rimunerazione 127
rimuovere 149
rincarare 300
rinchiudere 72, 159
rincorrere 73, 303
rincrescere 297, 366, 404,
408
rinforzare 302
rinfrescare 302
rinfusa (alla –) 182
ringiovanire 300, 302
ringraziare 372
rinnegare 74
rinsecchito 151
rintoccare 124
rintocco 124
rintronare 298
rinunciare 375
rinvenire 75
riparare 131
riparata 131
ripassare 74
ripasso 49
ripercorrere 303
riportare 49
riporto 69
riposo 41, 49
riprendere 37, 137, 374
riprendersi 37
ripristinare 131
riprovare 74
ripugnare 366
ripulire 142
riscaldare 302
rischiare 369
risentire 37
risentirsi 37
riserva 49
riservarsi 371
risicare 186
risolvere 371, 385
risparmi 120
rispettabile 44
rispondere 182, 369, 388
rissa 34
ristorare 49
ristorazione 62
ristoro 62
ristrutturare 131
risultare 297, 368
risuonare 298
risuscitare 300
ritardo 382
ritenere 370, 405
ritirare 63, 313
ritirarsi 313
ritirata 63
ritiro 63
ritornare in s´e 182
ritrarre 63
ritrattare 63
ritrovare 37
riuscirci 167
riuscire 50, 164, 296, 366,
375, 385
riva 140
rivalit`a 43, 98
rivelare 139
rivendicare 38, 75, 92
rivendita 138
rivenditore 138
rivenditrice 138
rivenire 75
riverenza 59
rivolgere 313
rivolgersi 313
rivoltella 112
rocca 63
– di Gibilterra 131
roccia 63, 131
muro di – 155
rogo 106
romancio 63
romanesco 15, 63
romanico 63
romanista 63
romano 63
romantico 63
romanza 82
romanzo 63, 82
romeno 63
rompere 97, 186
– il muso/la faccia 106,
179
– le scatole/le palle/i
coglioni 91, 182
rompersi 97, 124
rondine 123, 186
rosa 183, 253
rosicare 186
rosone 156
rossiccio (marrone –) 35
rosso 187
rotare 63
roteare 63
rotella 182
rotolare 300
rotto 182
rottura 124, 435
rovescio 93, 144
alla rovescia 93
rovina (in –) 33
mandare in – 33
rovinare 38, 101
ruba (andare a –) 175
rubare 74, 142
rubinetto 38, 160
rude 37
ruggire 123
ruggito 123
rumeno 63
rumore 38, 122
ruota 175
ruotare 63
sabbatico 117
sabotare 101
saccheggiare 142
sagace 42
salame 146–147
salario 127
salire 31, 98, 298, 374
salita 115
salpare 119, 300
saltare 302
– agli occhi 180
saltellare 169, 294, 295
salterellare 169
salto 143, 155
salumiere 16
salvare 176
salvarsi 177
salvato 187
salvo che 412
sampietrino 132
sandalo 136
sano 184, 187
santo (adj) 282
– cielo! 437
santa pace/pazienza!
435
santo (n) 180
stinco di – 183
santuario 49
sapere 118, 267, 306–307,
367, 370, 395, 406
fare – 118
saperla lunga 165
saponetta 39
sasso 132, 184
sassolino 132
sbagliare 312, 386, 387
sbagliarsi 312
sbaragliare 102
sbarcare 300
sbarra 39, 108, 143, 225
sbarretta 225
sbattere 71, 124
sbattersene 71
sberla 11
sbiadire 300
sbiancare 300
sbigottire 302
sbirro 128
461
Italian word index
sbocciare 297
sbolognare 109
sbottare 297
sbrigarsi 117, 375
sbucare 296
scacciare 71
scadere 71, 296
scaglia 70
scagliare 152
scala 70, 82, 260
scalare 98
scalo 82
scalogna 11, 107
scalpello 38
scambiare 71
scambievolmente 312
scambio 53
scampanare 124
scampanellare 124
scampanellio 124
scampanio 124
scampare 305
scamparla 165
scandaglio 70
scandalo 70
scandire 38
scannare 38
scannerizzare 38
scanno 134
scappare 296
scappata 155
scaracchio 46
scaraventare 152
scarno 151
scarogna 11
scarpa 136
scarpata 115
scarpe 126
scarpone 136
scassare 97
scassarsi 97
scatola 40
rompere le scatole 182
scattare 305
scaturire 297
scavo 116
scegliere 371
scemo 146–147, 148
scena 41
scenario 49
scendere 298, 374
schei 120
scheletrico 151
schermare 70
schermire 70
schernire 70
schiaffeggiare 159
schiaffo 11, 124, 159
schiantare 97, 305
schiantarsi 97
schiarire 302
schiattare 297
schiavo 135
schiena 93
schienale 93
schierarsi 161
schifezza/che –! 436
schifo/che –! 182, 436
schifoso 104
schioppo 112
schiudere 72
schizzare 300
scia 87
sci`a 87
sciagura 89
scialuppa 47
– di salvataggio 95
sciare 294, 295
scimunito 146–147, 148
sciocchezze 260
sciocco 146–147, 148
scippare 142
sciupare 101
sciupato 151
scivolare 306
scocciare 42, 91
scoglio 132
scolare 52, 72, 304
scolaro 50
scomparire 297
scomporre 74
sconcio 104
sconfiggere 102
scongiurare 92, 372
scongiuro 177
scontare 72
scontento 404
scontro 89
scopo 40
scoppiare 297, 374
scoprire 175, 182, 370
scoraggiare 313, 381
scoraggiarsi 313
scordare 314
scordarsi 314, 370
scorrere 72, 300, 303
scortare 149
scossa 33
scostumato 12
scotch 41
scottare 302
scozzese 41, 177
scranna 134
scranno 134
scritta 129
scrivere 370
scrofa 123
scroscio 144
scrutare 38, 105
sculacciare 159
scuola 32, 150
scuotimento 33
scurire 300
scurrile 104
sdegnoso 130
sdraio 134
sdrucciolare 296
sdrucciolo 221
se 95
– vogliamo 440
s´e (fuori di –) 178
ritornare in – 182
sebbene 410, 441
seccare 42, 91, 366, 408
secco 105, 151
secolare 50, 125
seconda mano 125
secondario 222
sede 134
sedere (n) 95
sedere (V) 297, 312
sedersi 312
sedia 11, 134
sedile 134
seducente 94
sega (fare –) 11
segaligno 151
seggio 134
seggiola 11, 134
seggiolino 134
seggiolone 134
seghino (fare –) 11
segnale 129
segnare 137
segretario 64
segreteria 64
seguire 64, 75, 298
seguitare 64, 298, 380
selce 132
sella 134
sellino 134
selvaggio 45, 51, 64
selvatico 45, 64
sembrare 164, 297, 367,
368, 405, 408
semplice 32, 222, 282
tempo – 223
semplicemente 32
semplicione 146–147
senile 125
senn`o 442
sensato 38, 64
sensibile 38, 64
sensitivo 64
sentenza 50
senti /sentite! 440
sentiero 127
sentirci 167
sentire 367
sentirsela 165, 371
sentore 141
senz’altro 434
senza che/di 412
sepolcrale 132
sequela 145
sequestrare 142
sera 64, 187
serata 64
serie 145
serio 182
serranda 11
servile 36
servire 164, 306, 366, 386
servirsi 388
servitore 135
servitrice 135
servit`u 135
servizio 135, 156
servo 135
setola 113
settimanale 127
sezionare 100
sfasciare 97
sfasciarsi 97
sfera 93
sfidare 376
sfiga 11, 107
sfigurare 101
sfilare 306
sfilata 145
sfilza 145
sfiorire 297
sfociare 297
sfogare 301
sfollagente 143
sfollare 302
sfondare 73
sfortuna 107
sforzarsi 154, 371
sfuggire 304
sfumare 301
sgabello 134
sgambetto 159
sganassone 11
sgelare 298, 302
sgherro 128
sgocciolare 304
sgoccioli (agli –) 183
462
Italian word index
sgominare 102
sgonfiare 302
sgorgare 296
sgraffignare 142
sguattero/-a 135
si 314–315, 316
s`ı 379, 436
si dice 406
siccome 422
Sicilia (fare –) 11
sicurezza 50
sicuro 50, 373, 405–409
signore 40
signorina 96
silenzio 155
sillaba 223
simpatia 38
simpatico 38
singolare 222
sinistra 79
sinistro 79, 89
sino 336
sintassi 221
sistemare 131
sistemata 131
slanciato 151
slittare 296
sloggiare 121
smantellare 103
smettere 371
smetterla 165
smilzo 151
sminuzzare 97
smoking 41
smorfia 106
smottare 297
smunto 151
snello 151
sobborgo 126
soccorrere 114, 303
soccorso (prestare –) 114
soddisfatto 33, 373
sofferenza 35
soffiare 142
soffitta 31
soffocare 302
soffriggere 301
soffrire 387
Sof`ıa 87
S`ofia 87
soggetto (adj) 50
soggetto (n) 50, 223
soggiogare 102
sognare 370, 387, 406
sogno (manco/nemmeno
per –) 437
soldi 36, 120, 183, 260
soldo 120
sole 184
solennit`a 117
solere 161
solido 50
solito (essere –) 161, 367
sollecitare 92
solo 184, 187, 282, 378,
403
non – . . . ma anche 441
somigliare 388
somma 46
sommato (tutto –) 442
somministrare 42, 109
sommit`a 153
sonare 124
soppesare 74
sopportare 38, 74
sopra 343–345
di – 153
sopracciglio 113
sopraggiungere 296
soprannome 121
soprascarpa 136
sopravvivere 297
sordido 104
sordo 184
sorgere 296
sorpassare 74
sorprendere 377, 408
sorpresa 382
sorpreso 373, 404
sorreggere 114
sorsata 120
sorso 120
sorte 107
sospeso 176
sospettare 370
sostantivo 222
sostanziale 49, 64
sostanzioso 50, 64
sostenere 31, 38, 64, 73,
114, 133, 405
sostentare 64
sottile 151
sottintendere 35
sotto 342–343
esserci – qualcosa 183
sottomettere 102
sottrarre 142, 149
sozzo 104
spaccare 97
– il muso/la faccia 179
spaccarsi 97, 124
spacciatore 138
spacciatrice 138
spaccio 138
spacco 124
spada 38
spago 145
spaghetti 260
spalle 93
spalliera 93
sparacchiare 170
sparare 124, 137
spararsi 137
sparecchiare 160
sparire 297
fare – 142
sparo 124, 137
sparuto 151
spaventare 313
spaventarsi 313
specialista 382
specie 64
spegnere 160
spendere un patrimonio
120
spendereccio 38
spennare 142
speranza 187
sperare 370
sperimentare 50, 154
spese 260
spettacolo 36, 50
spettare 297, 366
spettatore 51
spettegolare 133
spezia 64
spezzare 97
– una lancia 178
spezzarsi 97
spezzettare 97
spiacere 297
spianare 103, 302
spiattellare 133
spiccare 160
spicciarsi 117
spiccioli 120, 260
spiegare 133, 139
spifferare 133
spin 153
spine (sulle –) 183
spingarda 112
spingere 376
spinto 104
spiovere 298, 304
spiritico 64
spiritoso 64
spirituale 64
splendido 94
spocchioso 130
spogliare 38, 142
spola 183
sponda 140
sporco 104
sporgere 301
sportello 156
sportivo 38
sposare 314
sposarsi 314
spostarsi 121
spranga 143
spregiudicato 61
spremere 74
sprezzante 130
sprizzare 301
sprofondare 301
spronare 376
spugna 183, 185
spuntare 100
sputo 46
squadra 65, 140
squadriglia 65
squadrone 65
squagliarsela 165
squillare 298
squit/squit-squit 123
squittio 123
squittire 123
stabilimento 50
stabilire 370
staffe 91, 181
stage 41
stagionato 125
stalla 183
stampella 10, 12
stancare 313
stancarsi 313, 371
stanco 374
stanfella 10
stanga 143
starci 167
stare 290–291, 297, 375,
381, 386
– sui coglioni/sul
cazzo/sullo
stomaco 183
starnutire 124
starnuto 124
starsene 166
starter 41
statistica 260
stecca 79, 143
stecco 79, 143
stendardo 129
stentare 375
sterminare 103
sterpo 143
stesso 282
stillare 301
463
Italian word index
stinco di santo 183
stitichezza 44
stitico 44
stivale 136
stivaletto 136
stoffa 34, 47
stolido 146–147
stolto 146–147
stomaco (stare sullo –) 183
storia 50, 67
storiella 67
storpiare 101
stoviglie 260
stracciare 102
straccio 11
stradale 128
stradicciola 127
stradina 127
strano 377
straparlare 133
strapuntino 134
straripare 297
strato 153
stravagante 38
stravincere 102
strenna 108
stretto 41
stringa 11, 145
stringere 187
strisciare 294
striscione 129
strofa 39
stronzo 435
struzzo 36
studiare 105
studio legale 34
studioso 50
stufa 106
stufo 374
stupendo 94, 434
stupido 146–147, 148
stupire 302, 313
stupirsi 313, 370, 404
stupito 404
stuprare 37
su 343–345, 425, 435
subentrare 297
subito 37
subordinato 222
succedere 50, 297, 368
successo (avere –) 50
sudare 176
suddito 50
sudicio 104
sudore 141
sufficiente 377
suffisso 223
suggerimento 50, 65
suggestione 50, 65
suicidarsi 313
suola 79
suolo 79
suonare 124, 306
suono 124
suora 11
super 107
superbia 130
superbo 50, 130
superficiale 34, 153
superficie 106, 153, 258
superiore 150, 153, 362
superlativo 222
supermarket 138
supermercato 138
supplicare 92, 372
supponiamo che 419
supporre 405
supposto che 419
surgelare 73
suscettibile 50
susseguire 302
sussistere 297
svaligiare 142
svanire 297
sveglia 66
svegliare 75, 313
svegliarsi 75, 313
svelare 370
svelto 151
svenire 75, 296
sventura 89
svenuto 46
svignarsela 165
svilupparsi 111
svolgere 156
tabella 65
tabellone 129
tabula rasa 183
tabulato 65
tacchino 123
tacco 114
tacere 387
tagliare 100
tagliuzzare 100, 169
tale 379
– che 411
– da 411
talento 108
tallone 114
talmente 379
talpa 184
tamburo 143
tanfo 141
tanto 379
– . . . quanto 272
tappa (bruciare le tappe)
183
tapparella 11
tappo 30, 38, 153
tardi 187
targa 129
tassa 82
tasso 82
tattica 260
tavola 43, 50, 65
tavolata 79
tavolato 65, 79
tavolino 65
tavolo 50, 65
te 8, 84, 262
t´e/t`e 84
teenager 96
telecamera 31
telefonare 388
telefono 124
televisione 65
televisore 65
temere 370, 404
tempesta 144
tempestato 65
tempestivo 65
tempestoso 65
tempio 257
tempo 183, 187, 223
`e – che 408
fare in – 375
temporale (adj) 50
temporale (n) 50, 144
tendere 375
tendine del ginocchio 145
tenebre 260
tenerci 167
tenere (– a bada) 183
– conto 161
– presente 161
tennis 136
tentare 154, 371, 386
tenuto 375
tergiversare 37
terminare 298, 371
termine 50, 88
terna 51, 79
terno 79
terra 65
terreno 65
terrestre 65
crosta – 153
terribile 377
terrone 13
terzetto 51
terzina 79
terzino 79
terzo 187
teso 41
tessuto 34
testa 70, 82, 180, 183
– di cazzo 435
cenno con la – 166–167
testata (dare una –) 158
teste 70
testicolo 93
testimonianza 34
testo 70, 82
testone 88, 146–147
tetro 36
tetta 70, 82
tetto 70, 82, 153
tettoia 70
ti 262
ticchettare 124
ticchettio 124
tic-tac 124
tifone 144
tight 41
tigre 123
tirare 137, 152
– le cuoia 177
– sul prezzo 158
tirarla per le lunghe 165
tirata 120
tirato per i capelli 176
tiro 137
tirocinio (periodo di –) 41
titolare 150
toc toc 124
toccare 164, 297, 366
– ferro 177
togliere 149, 388
tombale 132
tonale 65
tondo 224
tonico (adj) 65, 221
tonico (n) 65
tonno 70
tono 70
tonto 146–147, 148
top 153
top spin 153
topo 123, 186
torcere (filo da –) 177
tormenta 82, 144
tormentare 91
tormentarsi 31
tormento 82
tornado 144
tornare 296, 374
– a bomba 175
464
Italian word index
tornarsene 166
toro 123, 183, 184
torta 83
t´orta/t`orta 84
torto 83
avere – 161
dare – 161, 182
tosare 100
tosto 177
tra 345–346
traboccare 178, 304
tracimare 304
tracotante 130
tragitto 127
traiettoria 127
trambusto 32
tramezzo 155
tramontana 181
tramontare 296
tranciare 100
tranne che 412
transatlantico 95
transitivo 223
trapassato 224
trapelare 296
trascorrere 301, 303
trascurare 371
trasferirsi 47, 121
trasgressione 99
traslocare 47, 121
traslocarsi 121
trasportare 149
trattamento 66
trattato 66
trattenere 313
trattenersi 313
tratti 106
trattino 225
tratto 66
traversa 143
treccia 145
tredicesima 127
tremare 185
trillare 123, 124
trillo 123, 124
trimestre 50
trinciare 100
trio 51
trionfare 102
trisdrucciolo 221
tritare 100
triviale 38
troia 435
tromba d’aria/marina
144
trombone 112
troncare 100
tronco (adj) 221
tronco (n) 51
tronfio 130
trono 134
troppo 187, 380
trottola 180
trovare 186, 377
andare/venire a – 155
trovarsi 375
trafugare 142
trattenersi 381
tu 268–269, 316
tuffo 86
tufo 86
tuonare 298
tuono 70
turbine 144
turco 180, 185
turpe 104
tuttavia 441
tutto (– sommato) 442
fare di – 154
u`au`a 124
ubbidire 388
ubriacare 35
ubriaco 183
uccellino 123
uccello 123
-ucchiare 173
uccidere 137
-uccio 170
-uccolo 170
-ucolare 173
udienza 51
u`e! 438
u`eu`e 124
uffa! 435
ufficiale 66
ufficio 40, 66, 156
ufficioso 66
ultimo 153, 187, 378, 382,
403
ululare 123
ululato 123
umore 51
umorismo 51
unico 282, 378, 403
universit`a 32, 150
uno (l’un l’altro) 312
unto 104
-uolo 170
uomo delle pulizie 135
uovo 181, 186
uragano 144
uranio 143
urlo 254
urtare 124
urto 124
usa e getta 152
usanza 186
usare 367
usato 125
uscire 119, 296
uscirsene 166
uscita 34, 92, 108
usignolo 185
utile 378
uva 260
-uzzare 173
-uzzo 170
va’ (a dar via il culo) 435
– a quel paese 435
– al diavolo 435
vabb`e 434, 440
vacante 51
vacanza 38, 117
vacca 123
vaffanculo 435
vagare 295
vagliare 105
vago 51
vai 436
valente 66
valere 160, 187, 297
– la pena 366, 407–408
valido 47, 66, 377
valigie (fare le –) 183
valle (a –) 88
valore (di –) 66
valoroso 66
valuta 120
valutare 105
valvola dell’aria 41
vanaglorioso 130
vanga 38
vanitoso 51, 130
vano (adj) 51
vano (n) 51
vaporetto 95
variare 301, 303
vario 282
varo 47
vascello 95
vaso 178, 185
vecchio 125, 184, 282
vederci 167
vedere 154, 155, 166, 368,
371, 386
(non) – l’ora 407
– tutto nero/ rosa 183
fare – 139
vedersela (brutta) 165
vedi/vedete 440
vediamo (un po’) 440
veglia 66
vegliare 75, 387
vela 83
veleggiare 294
velenifero (dente –) 152
veliero 95
vello 113
velo 83
veloce 184, 377
velocemente 137
vena (in –) 183
vendicare 38, 75
venire 75, 292, 296, 308,
366, 374, 386
– a trovare 155
– alla luce 178
– alle mani 179
– su 111
v´enti/v`enti 84
vento 38, 144, 184, 185
venuta 38
vera 11
verbalizzare 39
verbo 223
verde (al –) 182
verga 143
vergogna 33, 408
avere – 370, 383
vergognarsi 313, 370
verificare 51, 105
verificarsi 51
vernacolo 119
vero 31, 282
`e – 440
versante 140
versetto 39
verso (n) 39, 122
verso (prep) 336
vertice 153
veste 39
vestito 260
vetrata 66, 156
vetrina 66, 156
vetrino 66
vetro 66, 110
vetta 153
vetusto 125
vezzeggiativo 223
via 127, 253
– libera 183
buttare – 152
e –! 435
portare – 149
viaggiare 294, 295
viale 127
465
Italian word index
vialetto 127
vicenda (a –) 312
vicinanze 126, 260
vietare 373, 407
vigile (urbano) 128
vigna 67
vignetta 67
vincere 102
vincita 66
vincolo 145
vino 180
violazione 99
violentare 37
viottolo 127
virgola 225, 226
virgolette 225
visita 155
visitare 105, 155
viso 106
vita 183, 187
vite 185
vittoria 66
vivacchiare 295
vivere 180, 299
viveri 260
viziare 38, 101
viziato 66
vizioso 51, 66
vocale 223
voce 38, 183
voglio dire 440, 442
voi 268–269
voialtri 262
volare 302
volante 253
volerci 167, 297
volere 187, 267, 306–307,
367, 397, 407
– bene 388
volerne 166
volgare 34
voltare 313
voltarsi 313, 374
volto 106
votare 387
votazione 66
voto 66
vuoto 51, 116
whisky 41
zaffata 141
zampa 119
zanna 152
zappa 183
zazzera 113
zecca (nuovo di –)
180
zoccolo 136
zona limitrofa 126
zoppicare 187, 294
zoppo 187
zozzo 104
zuccone 146–147
zuppare 11
466
Grammar index
a, with direct object 8, 9, 325
a vs ad 321
accents on vowels 29
adjective, in impersonal expressions
315–316
– negative 286–288
– position 280–283
adverb, negative 286–288
– position 279–280
agent, in passive 309–310
agreement, past participle and
pronouns 262
– past participle and reflexive
311–312
alphabet 226–228, 258
anche, position 279
andare, and gerund 291–292
– and passive 309
animals, gender 240
– noises 123
apodosis 416
articulated prepositions with
infinitive 380–382, 424–425
causative expressions 368
che, in comparisons 270–272
chi, in relative clauses
423–424
ci, and auxiliaries 307
– in idioms 166–167
– pleonastic use 264
cleft sentences 279, 378
collective nouns, agreement with
verb 261
con, with infinitive 380
comparative clauses 273, 414
compound nouns, gender 248–252
– plural 258–259
conditional, and sequence of tenses
400
conditional perfect tense 393 (see also
Future in the past, hypotheses
about the past)
conditional sentences 416–420
(see also periodo ipotetico)
conjunctions, in conditional
sentences 418–419
conjunctions requiring the
subjunctive 410–413
connectors 20, 22, 441–442
consecutio temporum =
sequence of tenses 399–401
da, with infinitive 378–379, 381
– in relative clauses 424
definite article with infinitive 380,
428
di, in comparisons 270–272
– with other prepositions 327,
335, 336, 343
dialect 2–5
– in interjections 433
direct object with a 8, 9, 325
direction, in verbs of movement
293–294
double consonants 6, 84–86
either . . . or 261
emphasis and word order 276
essere, as auxiliary 277, 295–307
– singular or plural 261
explicit subordinate clauses
421–424
factual conditionals 419–420
far fare 368
fillers 20, 22, 439–440
foreign words, gender 39, 239–240
– plural 258
future in the past, conditional perfect
tense 393, 400
– future tense 391
– imperfect tense 396
future perfect tense 392
future tense 391
future, expression of 390
gerund, in conditional sentences
418
– in periphrases 290–292
– in subordinate clauses 425–427
– position of subject 277, 426
– with stare, andare, venire
290–292
gli, range of meanings 263–264
hypotheses about the past,
conditional perfect 393
– imperfect tense 396
– trapassato prossimo 396
hypotheses about the present 391,
396
hypothetical conditionals 415,
416–419
if, in conditional sentences
418–419
il fatto che, and the subjunctive
409
imperative, future tense 391
– present tense 390
– subjunctive 403
imperfect and perfect 394–395
imperfect tense, with da 329
– and sequence of tenses 400
– in conditional sentences 417,
419
impersonal expressions 314–316,
407–409
implicit subordinate clauses
424–429
in, with infinitive 381–382
indirect questions, and subjunctive
410
infinitive, in conditional sentences
418
– in periphrases 291
– in subordinate clauses 424–425
– with da 323–330, 381
– with stare, essere dietro 291
467
Grammar index
-ing, how to translate 428–429
interjections 20, 22, 433–438
la in idioms 164–165
Lei 268–269, 403
location, expressed with a 323–324
– expressed with in 337–338
– expressed with su, sopra 343
loro, position 267
– impersonal 316
Loro 268–269, 403
manner, expressed with a 322–323
– expressed with in 338–339
– in verbs of movement 293–294,
295
modal attraction 414
modal verbs, and auxiliaries
306–307
– and pronouns 267
– and reflexives 314
– different tenses 397–398
movement, expressed with a 321
– expressed with da 328
– expressed with in 337–338
– expressed with per 340
movement verbs 293–294
ne 264–265, 272–273
– and auxiliaries 307
– in idioms 166
negative antecedents 414
neither . . . nor 261
nominalization 428
non 285–286, 289
– pleonastic 272, 273, 288, 412
nouns, gender 239–255
– number 256–260
number, expressions with su, sopra
343–344
numbers, and altro 283
object, impersonal 316–317
– position 277–279
open vs closed vowels 6–7, 83–84
passato prossimo, and passato
remoto 393–394
– sequence of tenses 399, 401
passato remoto, and passato
prossimo 393–394
– and sequence of tenses 399
passive 308–310, 314
past gerund 425, 426
past participle, agreement with
pronouns 262
– in impersonal expressions 316
– in subordinate clauses 427–428
– position of noun 277, 428
per, with infinitive 379–380
perch´e clauses, position 422
periodo ipotetico = conditional
sentences 416–420
place names and prepositions 356
pluperfect 396–397
plural of nouns 256–260
prefix, negative 288–289
prepositions, articulated 321,
424–425
– following adjectives 373–374,
376–377, 379, 380
– following verbs 365–388
present conditional tense 389–391,
392
– sequence of tenses 401
present participle in subordinate
clauses 427
present tense 389–391, 392
– with da 329
pronoun, and auxiliaries 307
– proclisis and enclisis 267
– negative 286–288
– reflexive, when omitted 311
– stressed vs unstressed 262, 311
pronouns of address 268–269
proper names, plural 258
protasis 416
reflexive verbs 301, 307, 311–315
regions of Italy, prepositions 356
register 5
relative clauses 9, 422–424
– and the subjunctive 413–414
– in conditional sentences 419
restare, and passive 309
rimanere, and passive 309
same subjects in noun clauses 404
sequence of tenses 399–401
sex, and gender 239–240
si, and passive 314–315
– impersonal 314–316
– with other pronouns 263–265,
266
singular and plural, meanings of
nouns 259–260
subject, impersonal 314–316
– position 276–277, 418,
426
subjunctive, in conditional sentences
417–418
– in dependent clauses 404–415
– in main clauses 403–404
– meaning 402–403
– sequence of tenses 400–401
subordinate clauses, before or after
the main clause 409, 421–422,
427
suffixes, affective 168–173
– superlative 274–275
superlatives 273–275, 414
– with di 272, 334
syntactic doubling 7
telephone alphabet 226–228
time, expressed with a 322
– expressed with da 329
– expressed with di 333
– expressed with in 338
– expressed with per 340–341
– expressed with su 343–344
– expressed with tra 346
transition words 20, 22,
441–442
trapassato prossimo tense 396
(see also hypotheses about the
past)
– and sequence of tenses 399
trapassato remoto tense 397
tu, impersonal 316
– vs Lei 268–269
uno, impersonal 316
venire, and gerund 292
– and passive 308
verbal periphrases 8, 10,
290–292
verbs of perception 367–368
vi 266
voi 268–269
weather verbs 298
word order, pronouns and verb
265–268
– subordinate clauses 421–422

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Biyernes, Setyembre 2, 2011

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